
Qass r:... I'l^ 

Book '1 



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COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



HISTORY OF 
THE UNITED STATES 

FOR CATHOLIC SCHOOLS 



BY 
CHART.ES H. McCARTHY, Ph.D. (U. of Pa ) 

KNIGHTS OF COLUMBUS PROFESSOR OF AMERICAN HISTORY 
THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA 




$N\U/ 




AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 

NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO 

BOSTON ATLANTA 



'N\IZ 



Htl|il (ibatat 
Smprimatur. 



ARTHUR J. SCANLAN, S.T.D. 
Censor Librorum 



JOHN CARDINAL FARLEY. 



Xew York, Oct. 5///, IQ17. 



Copyright, 1919, by 
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 

All Rights Reserved 



McC HiJt. U. S. 



bbP 2/ '919 



©CI.A580964 



PREFACE 



Having taught the subject of x^merican history for many 
years, the author lielieves that he has become acquainted 
with not a few of the difficulties of both teachers and pupils. 
In preparing this elementary book for Catholic schools cer- 
tain conspicuous facts have been kept constantly in mind, 
namely, those of special interest and importance to Catholics. 
Thus it is made clear that Catholics discovered, and, in a 
large way, explored these continents, that Catholics trans- 
ferred civilization hither, that they opened to the commerce 
of Europe the trade of the Pacific, and that they undertook 
the conversion of multitudes of dusky natives, of whom few 
had risen to the upper stages of barbarism. 

Though England was Catholic when the voyages of Cabot 
gave her a claim to North America, that nation had become 
almost entirely Protestant before making any permanent 
settlements in the New World. Of the thirteen colonies 
founded or conquered by England, Maryland alone was 
settled by Catholic leaders. The war for independence, 
therefore, was begun by a people who were nearly all Protes- 
tants! However, in the course of that long struggle the 
assistance of Catholic nations was solicited and obtained. 
After February, 1778, the entire military and naval power 
of France was employed in the contest against Great Brit- 
ain; after 1779, Spain, without becoming an ally, engaged 
in that war on her own account. But the Spaniards in 
America rendered undoubted assistance to the new Republic. 

In this little volume somewhat more space has been 
devoted to Norse settlement and discovery than is usual 
in school books. The same observation is true of the Fran- 
ciscan missions in China. The pages concerning Columbus 
are based upon researches of the author, and, among other 
things, aim at removing the obscurity which has surrounded 



IV PREFACE 

the equipment of the expedition of discovery. There will 
also be found an account of the Huguenot settlements some- 
what more ample than that orcUnarily given. 

In treating the early histoiy of New York an effort has 
been made to give to Governor Dongan that place among 
colonial worthies to which he appears to be entitled. The 
work of the Calverts Ukewise is more fully described than 
is customary with the authors of our school histories. By 
including the facts connected with the massacre of Lachine 
a slightly different complexion is given to the l^eginnings of 
King William's war. 

In relating the causes and the progress of the Revolutionary 
War tliis book attempts so to present the events that it will 
be easy for the pupil to remember the story. The winning 
of the West, in which Catholics acted an important part, is 
rather fully treated. The war on the sea enumerates the 
exploits of the O'Briens of Machias, Maine, a subject passed 
without observation in even the more complete histories. 
To this section l^elongs also a sketch of Captain John Barry, 
who is only now beginning to be known to official America. 

In the national period is included a brief treatment of the 
beginnings of the Catholic Church in the United States, to 
which is added Washington's patriotic letter to his Catholic 
countrymen. The importance is pointed out of Macdonough's 
victory on Lake Champlain. The Civil War is presented 
according to its main movements. The outUne of the war 
against Germany is based on the addresses of President 
Wilson, on General Pershing's report of the American 
Expeditionary Force, on government pubHcations, and on 
contemporary periodicals. 

For the benefit of the younger teachers who may use this 
book there will be found in the Appendix a topical analysis 
of our history. The questions following the chapters are 
designed to be suggestive rather than comprehensive. 

Charles H. McCarthy. 

The Catholic Unwersity of America. 



CONTENTS 



EARLY VOYAGES 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I Northmen, Italians, and Portuguese 1 

II The Discovery of America by Columbus 10 

III Exploration and Early Settlements 24 

IV The North American Indian 45 

COLONIAL ERA 

V Virginia 54 

VI The New England Colonies 64 

VII The Middle Colonies 86 

VIII The Southern Colonies 101 

IX Survey of the English Colonies 117 

X New France and Louisiana 128 

XI The Intercolonial Wars 137 

XII Causes of the Revolutionary War 150 

ERA OF INDEPENDENCE 

XIII The War in New England (1775-1776); Independ- 

ence Declared 161 

XIV The War in the Middle States (1776-1778) 177 

XV The Winning of the West 187 

XVI The War on the Sea 196 

XVII The War in the South (1778-1781); Independence 

Won 205 

XVIII The Critical Era 215 

XIX The Beginnings of the Catholic Church in the United 

States 225 

THE NATIONAL PERIOD 

XX Government by the FederaHsts 235 

XXI Government by the Republicans under Jefferson and 

Madison (1801-1817) 251 

V 



VI CONTENTS 

CHAPTEK PAG?^ 

XXII Growth of the West; Era of Good Feeling 271 

XXIII The Jacksonian Epoch 284 

XXIV Development, Immigration, and Reform (1820-1840) 296 
XXV Expansion and Dissension (1840-1852) 309 

XXVI Effort to Extend Slavery 335 

XXVII Survey of the Period between 1840 and 1860 345 

XXVIII The Civil War (1861-1863) 353 

XXIX The Civil War (Continued) 375 

XXX Era of Reconstruction (1862-1877) 398 

XXXI Growth and Economic Development 409 

XXXII Industrial and Other Domestic Affairs (1873-1897) . 423 

XXXIII The War with Spain and Later Events (1898-1912) . 435 

XXXIV Wilson's Administration; War with Germany 457 

APPENDIX 

Reference Table of the States vii 

Reference Table of Presidents and Vice Presidents viii 

Important Events in American History, Chronologically Ar- 
ranged ix 

Constitution of the United States xvi 

Topical Analysis xxix 

Index xlvii 

COLORED PICTURES 

The Landing of Columbus Frontispiece 

Father Marquette on the Mississippi River Facing 132 

The First Meeting of Washington and La Fayette Facing 184 

Forty-niners Panning for Gold in California Facing 328 

COLORED MAPS 

Part of North America about 1700 134 

Revolutionary War in the North 162 

Revolutionary War in the South 204 

The United States in 1803 250 

The United States in 1825 280 

The United States in 1850 330 

The United States in 1861 354 

Territorial Development of the Continental United States 1776- 

1866 • . . . 440 



EARLY VOYAGES 



CHAPTER I 
NORTHMEN, ITALIANS, AND PORTUGUESE 

The Northmen. — The first white men who ever came 
to America were Northmen. Our continent was discov- 
ered through accident in the year 1000, by a Northman 
named Leif, who was on his way to proclaim the Christian 
faith in Greenland. Let us see, therefore, who the North- 
men were, and how Leif came to make his famous voyage 
to Greenland. 

The Northmen, a thousand years ago, were known as 
the boldest sailors of Europe. Their home was Norway, 
Sweden, and Denmark, and they were called Norsemen 
and Danes as well as Northmen. Among their descend- 
ants are the Scandinavian peoples of to-day. 

During the eighth and ninth centuries bands of Danish 
sea rovers sailed southward to plunder England. Some of 
them settled there, and for a time England was ruled by 
Danish kings. Other Northmen settled in France, received 
the benefits of a Latin civilization, and under the name of 
Normans played a great part in history. In Ireland, which 
the Northmen or Danes also attempted to conquer, they 
were severely defeated. Soon after this, defeats in Great 
Britain and on the Continent brought their career of con- 
quest to an end. About the year 1000 they were converted 
to Christianity. 

Settlement of Greenland. — In the saga of Er'ic the 
Red we are told that Eric and his father went from Norway 

1 



2 NORTHMEN, ITALIANS, AND PORTUGUESE 

to Iceland on account of manslaughter.^ Not long after- 
ward, about 985 A.D., Eric discovered and named Green- 
land and set out to colonize it. Like a shrewd real estate 
dealer of our time he gave the country a name that he 
believed would attract settlers. 

The Norse colonies in Greenland were on the south- 
western coast. The people were chiefly engaged in hunt- 
ing, fishing, and cattle breeding. Their conversion to 
Christianity brought them into such communication with 
Rome as their distant situation would permit. They con- 
tributed tithes to the Crusades ^ and as late as 1418, in 
walrus tusks paid their Peter's Pence to the Holy See. 
At this time the population of Greenland was about 5000. 
There was a monastery of Saints Olaf and Augustine; 
also a convent of the Benedictine order. Greenland could 
claim a line of at least sixteen bishops. 

Discovery of the Continent. — The Greenlanders were 
still few in number, and not yet converted, when an acci- 
dent gave them knowledge of a new country. Leif, one 
of the sons of Eric, had won the favor of Olaf, the 
king of Norway. On one occasion this ruler asked, " Is 
it thy purpose to sail to Greenland this summer? " 
"It is my purpose," said Leif, "if it be your will." 
" I believe it will be well," answered the king, " and 
thither shalt thou go upon my errand to proclaim Chris- 
tianity there." 

On the way to Greenland, Leif's ship was tossed about 

1 The sagas were accounts handed down orally by the Icelanders for 
many years, and later reduced to writing. Iceland was settled by the 
Northmen in the ninth century. 

2 The Crusades were mighty invasions of Asia which were intended to 
prevent the Mohammedans (Saracens and Turks) from overrunning Europe; 
also to make safe the route taken by pilgrims on their journeys to the 
Holy Land ; in fact, its conquest was one of the main objects of the soldiers of 
the cross. These movements began in 1096. After 1291 they were practi- 
cally abandoned. 



DISCOVERY BY THE NORTHiMEN 3 

by a storm and at last was driven toward a strange shore. 
On landing he found wild grapes so plentiful that he called 
the country Vineland. While returning homeward, he 
saved a shipwrecked crew, took the men with him to 



-^fii Pf 




A NORSE VESSEL 



Greenland, and helped them during the winter. He then 
obeyed the king's command and proclaimed the Catholic 
faith.i 

Strange Lands and People. — In Greenland there was 
much talk of the land seen by Leif ; and in the springtime 
of 1005, Karlsef'ni and Snorri fitted out a ship to find it. 
From the western settlement they sailed southward to a 
country they called Hel'luland, that is, the land of flat 
stones. Again they sailed for two days and came to a 
wooded tract in which there were many wild beasts. This 

1 Arthur Middleton Reeves, The Finding of Wineland the Good, 36. 



4 NORTHMEN, ITALIANS, AND PORTUGUESE 

they named Markland.^ Afterward the party sailed for a 
long time and finally came to a river flowing through a 
lake, into the sea. In the hollow places they found " self- 
sown wheat" fields; on the hills vines were growing. In 
the woods wild animals were abundant and in the waters 
there were many fish. While here in Vineland or Wine- 
land they were visited by the natives, who came in skin 
canoes. These were ill-looking and swarthy men with 
ugly hair, great eyes, and broad cheeks. Karlsefni and his 
companions built huts and remained during the" winter. 
As there was no snow, their cattle lived by grazing. In 
the spring the natives came in great numbers. In a fierce 
battle they showed much strength. This incident warned 
Karlsefni that life in that otherwise pleasant country would 
be a thing of constant dread. Moreover, there were dis- 
putes among the Norsemen themselves. Therefore in the 
summer of 1006 or 1007 Karlsefni with the survivors 
returned to Greenland.^ 

Greenland Settlements Destroyed. — Early in the fif- 
teenth century the towns in Greenland were entirely 
destroyed by attacks of the Eskimos. If the Norsemen 
had had firearms, they would easily have held their own 
against both the swarthy natives of Wineland and the 
wandering Eskimos. As it was, their brave efforts came 
to nothing. 

The Italians ; Trade with Asia. — The people of southern 
Europe paid little attention to the Norse discoveries. The 

1 The best authorities on the discoveries of the Northmen in America 
believe that Helluland, the land of flat stones, corresponds to the modern 
Labrador; that Markland, the land of forests, must have been the island 
of Newfoundland, and that Wineland must have been the region of Nova 
Scotia. Many historians, it is true, place Wineland as far south as the 
shores of Narragansett Bay. 

2 Many other voyages were made to Wineland. Indeed, as late as the 
year 1121 Bishop Eric left Greenland in order to visit that part of his See, 
but afterward was never heard from. 



ITALIANS IN ASIA 5 

Italian cities, for example, were far more interested in 
voyages to Asia. After the Crusades (1096-1260) many 
Italian trading ships went to Constantinople or to ports 
on the Black Sea, to get merchandise that had been brought 
from China or India or the Spice Islands. The articles 
in greatest demand were cotton, silk, rugs, spices, jewels, 




THE KNOWN WORLD IN 1490; TRADE ROUTES TO INDIA 



and rich cloth inwrought with gold and silver. Little was 
known about eastern Asia until Marco Polo, with his father 
and uncle, made the long journey to Cathay' (China), and 
wrote a lively account of the countries through which he 
passed. 

The Franciscans in Cathay. — Late in the thirteenth 
century requests were sent to the Pope for missionaries. 



6 NORTHMEN, ITALIANS. AND PORTUGUESE 

In 1295 John of Monte Corvino (mon'ta cor-ve'no), a 
Franciscan friar, began his labors in the East. Years of 
toil were rewarded by many conversions. This zealous 
missionary was joined by assistants and at length was 
appointed Archbishop of Cambulac (Peking). At the very 
moment when it appeared as if the religion and the civiliza- 
tion of Europe were to be established in the East a revolt 
of the native Chinese drove out the ruling family. With 
the narrow policy that has marked them down to our own 
time, the Chinese have since kept foreigners at a distance. 
Missionaries, indeed, were still sent forth by the Popes, 
but they went out into darkness and were heard of no more. 

Merchants and Missionaries in China. — During this 
brief enlightened era of Chinese history Europe learned 
much about the Far East from her missionaries and mer- 
chants. While the good friars were spreading a knowledge 
of Christian principles, other Europeans were explaining 
to the Chinese the benefits of commerce. The trade be- 
tween Europe and the East grew to be very great. It 
is important in our own history, because the stopping of 
that trade was one of the causes that led to the discovery 
of America by Columbus. 

Fall of Constantinople. • — From the map on page 5 it 
will be seen that the city of Constantinople was the key 
of the northern trade routes to Asia, as Egypt was of the 
southern routes. In 1453 Constantinople was taken by 
the Turks, who gradually extended their conquests till they 
almost entirely cut . off the trade between Europe and 
Asia. Upon the prosperity of Genoa (jen'o-a) and Ven'ice 
the effect was disastrous.^ In a little while the trained 
seamen of Italy were dispersed among the rising powers 
of western Europe. This fact explains the presence of 

1 Trade will not prosper unless routes are safe and rates are reasonable. 
The Turks were unable to keep up the traffic. 



PORTUGUESE EXPLORATIONS 7 

Columbus first in Portugal and then in Spain, of Cabot 
in England, and of Verrazano (ver-ra-tsah'no) in France. 

Prince Henry the Navigator. — As early as 1291 Geno- 
ese mariners, the Vivaldi (ve-vahl'de) brothers, made an 
unsuccessful attempt to sail around Africa in order to 
reach India by water. About a century later the Portu- 
guese took up the work of discovery. In his youth Prince 
Henry, the son of King John I, had seen military service 
in Morocco. In one of his campaigns he had talked with 
men from beyond the Sahara. From tliem he learned 
something of the interior of Africa. Afterward on Cape 
St. Vincent, Portugal, he built a school of instruction to 
which he invited scientific men from almost every country 
of Europe. It was then that exploration for the first time 
became systematic. 

Diaz Passes Cape of Good Hope. — Nearly every year 
from 1418 to 1460 Prince Henry sent out ships to explore 
the western coast of Africa. The most southerly point 
touched by each captain was marked by a stone cross. 
The commander who was so fortunate as to carry the 
emblem of Christianity farther south was almost certain 
to be rewarded by the Prince. After his death, in 1460, 
this useful work was often interrupted. Nevertheless, the 
Portuguese persevered and finally, by the year 1487, 
Barthol'omeu Diaz (de'ahss) rounded the Cape of Good 
Hope. In 1498 Vasco da Gama gah'ma), one of their 
captains, arrived in India, thereby completing one of the 
four greatest voyages in history .^ 

Portuguese Achievement. — When the Portuguese be- 
gan their voyages along the coast of Africa, popular igno- 
rance had filled the " Sea of Darkness," as the Atlantic 

' The other three of these wonderful voyages were made by Cohimbus 
in 1492, by one of Magellan's ships in 1519-1522, and by Drake in 1577- 
1580. 



8 



NORTHMEN, ITALIANS, AND PORTUGUESE 



Ocean was then called, with all sorts of terrors. There 
were believed to be shifting whirlpools and irresistible 
currents. Parts of the ocean, it was thought, were no 
more than one fathom deep, and were the home of evil 
spirits; and if by chance a vessel could pass beyond, its 
crew was certain to become the sport of monsters of the 
deep. These fables were believed not only by untraveled 




THE " SEA OF DARKNESS," AS SHOWN ON AN OLD MAP 

landsmen but by veteran sailors. But now the Portuguese 
had passed in succession many capes. They had even 
crossed the equator without being "burned up. Their 
voyages had much to do with freeing men's minds from 
the terrors of the sea. After the voyage of Diaz in 1487 
they were sure of a water route to India; but some people 
thought that route would be too long for much use. 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — Who were the Norsemen? What conquests 
did they make? Who discovered Greenland and why was it so 
named? Give a brief account of the Greenland settlements, includ- 
ing their relation to the Holy See. Why did Leif sail to Greenland in 
the year 1000? What discovery was made on the voyage? Describe 
the voyage of Karlsefni and Snorri in 1005. What lands did they 
find? Why did the Norsemen abandon Wineland? 



QUESTIONS AND REFERENCES 9 

Where did Italian merciiants usually go to get goods from the far 
East? What commodities were in demand among Europeans? What 
did Marco Polo do? Describe the missionary labors of the Franciscans 
in China. How was their work undone? What effect did the fall 
of Constantinople have upon the trade between Europe and Asia? 
Examine the trade routes on the map. Besides putting an end to 
the Asiatic trade, in what manner did the fall of Constantinople 
affect Italian seamen? 

What did Prince Henry establish on Cape St. Vincent? Which 
of the Portuguese captains first sailed a ship around the Cape of 
Good Hope? Give the name of the Portuguese explorer who first 
arrived in India and also the date of that event. What was thought 
of the Atlantic Ocean before the Portuguese began their explorations? 
What was the effect on people generally of those discoveries? 

References. — Charles H. McCarthy, Columbus and his Prede- 
cessors, pp. 17-81 ; Arthur Middleton Reeves, The Finding of Wine- 
land the Good; R. H. Major, Prince Henry the Navigator. 



CHAPTER II 

THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY COLUMBUS 

War with the Moors. — While the Portuguese were prov- 
ing that unknown parts of the ocean could be sailed with 
safety, and while they were exploring the west coast of 

Africa, Spain was entering upon 
the last stages of a long and 
bloody struggle with the Moors. 
This war gave the Spanish sov- 
ereigns little time to note the 
activity of Portugal, but they 
did find time to consider a proj- 
ect submitted to them by a for- 
eigner living in their country. 
This stranger was Christopher 
Columbus. 

Boyhood of Columbus. ^ — 
Christopher Columbus, the great- 
est navigator of all time, was 
born in the year 1451,^ in Genoa, 
Italy. By occupation his parents 
were simple weavers as he him- 
self was and as were many of his kinsmen. He received 
such an education as was then given to the sons of artisans. 

1 From the time of his birth until he came to mature years almost every 
important event in the career of Christopher Columbus has been a battle- 
ground for historians. Many different dates have been assigned for his 
birth. The rank of his family has been disputed, and neither the manner 
nor the extent of his education has been shown with any degree of cer- 
tainty. There is also some doubt as to the resting place of his remains. 

10 




THE BOY COLUMBUS TALKING 
WITH SAILORS 



THE PLAN OF COLUMBUS 11 

In some way unknown to us he not only mastered the sci- 
ence of navigation, but learned Latin, and in that language 
read many works on geography. 

Columbus in Portugal. — In the year 1476 Columbus 
arrived in Portugal, and there married Felipa Moniz, a 
relative of one of Prince Henry's navigators. While living 
in that country, he made a careful study of many important 
problems of geography, and kept a record of his own ob- 
servations as well as those of others. The notes made in 
his books show that he was a remarkable student and 
thinker. He was especially interested in the problem of a 
water route to India. 

About 1484 Columbus left Portugal. Before quitting 
that country, however, he had applied to King John for 
aid in carrying out his plan to reach the East by sailing 
westward. The king rejected the proposal of Columbus, 
but granted to one of his own captains any islands or 
mainland that he might discover in the Atlantic. After 
the failure of his captain, King John urged Columbus to 
return to Portugal and undertake for him a voyage of 
discovery. 

Origin of his Grand Project. — It is often said that the 
idea of arriving at the East by sailing westward was first 
suggested to Columbus by a letter of Toscanelli, a cele- 
brated astronomer of Florence in Italy. As to this, it 
need only be said that Columbus himself had brought 
together a far more convincing body of knowledge than 
is to be found in the Toscanelli letters. To Columbus, then, 
is due the credit of having collected all the geographical 
information of his time and of having applied it to the 
problem of reaching eastern Asia by a new route. 

Spanish Friends of Columbus. — When Columbus ar- 
rived in Spain, he was, at least to persons of influence, an 
entire stranger. Among his early friends in that country 



12 THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY COLUMBUS 



was the Dominican friar, Diego de Deza (de-a'go da 
da'tliah), Bishop of Palencia. Other friends were Anto- 
nio de Marchena (niar-cha'nah) and Cardinal Pero Gonzales 
de Mendoza (pfi'ro gon-thah'less da nien-do'thah). The lat- 
ter it was who persuaded King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella 
to listen to the proposals of Columbus. Among the priests, 
the bishops, and the archbishops of Spain he found his 
best and most influential friends. 

At La Rabida. — At first the proposal of Columbus was 
rejected by the Spanish sovereigns. After this failure, 
and a still later one, Columbus resolved to leave Spain 

and to try his fortunes 
in France.^ He set out 
at once for the nearest 
seaport. With his little 
son, Diego, he made his 
way on foot. Night 
found the tired travelers 
before a monastery. A 
knock at its hospitable 
door brought the porter, 
of whom Columbus asked food and a bed for himself 
and his little boy. The Prior, Father Juan Perez (hwahn 
pa'reth), asked who he was and whence he came. This 
time the sailor explained his project to a sympathetic 
mind. At Palos (pah'loss), not far from the monastery of 
La Rabida (rah'be-dah), — for here it was that Columbus 
had sought rest, — dwelt a young man who was believed to 
have some knowledge of astronomy. With him and the 
Prior the stranger discussed his project of reaching the 




THE MONASTERY OF LA RABIDA 



1 When persuaded that it was useless to remain longer in Spain, Columbus 
sent his brother Bartholomew to England. Little is known of that mission, 
but on his way back Bartholomew heard of his brother's discovery of the 
Indies. 



ISABELLA AND COLUMBUS 13 

East by a westward voyage. So convinced was Father 
Perez that it could be done that he offered to write to 
Queen Isabella and urge her again to take up the decision 
of the court. A letter was sent to her Highness, and 
within two weeks brought a friendly reply requesting the 
Prior to appear before his sovereigns. 

Mission of Father Perez. — At midnight Father Perez 
mounted his mule and set out upon his long and danger- 
ous journey. At his interview with the Queen it was agreed 
that three vessels should be eqiiipped for the expedition. 
Her Highness also sent a sum of money and a letter to 
Columbus. This directed him to purchase a mule, suit- 
able raiment, and to appear before her. 

The Contract. — On April 17, 1492, Columbus entered 
into a contract with Ferdinand and Isabella. It provided 
that the sovereigns should pay seven eighths,^ and he one 
eighth of the cost of the undertaking; that in this propor- 
tion they should share the profits; that Columbus should be 
made admiral of all those islands and mainlands which should 
be found through his agency; also that he should be invested 
with all the privileges belonging to an admiral of Castile; 
that he should be made viceroy and governor-general of 
all the islands and mainlands discovered by him and that 
from all the trade within the limits of his authority he 
should receive ten per cent of the net proceeds. 

Objects of Columbus. — It is generally stated that the 
object of the Admiral was merely to find a shorter route 

1 When Isabella became Queen, she revived an old society known as the 
Santa Hermandad or Holy Brotherhood. One of its objects was to make 
the highways safer for travelers. The Brotherhood had power to lay and 
collect taxes. This right always gave it a fund with which to do its work. 
Through its officials it loaned the sovereigns the money for pr'.ying their 
share of the sum needed for equipping Columbus. This was afterward 
repaid with interest. The amount paid back was 1,140,000 maravedis, 
which would represent about $70,000 of our money. Where Columbus got 
his share is not certainly known. 



14 THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY COLUMBUS 

to India. In the Journal of his first voyage he describes 
his undertaking as an embassy to see the countries of 
India, " to see the said princes, and the cities and lands, 
and their disposition, with a view that they might be con- 
verted to our holy faith . . . they [the Catholic Sover- 
eigns] ennobled me, so that henceforth I shall be called 
Don, and shall be chief admiral of the Ocean Sea, per- 
petual viceroy, and governor of all the islands and conti- 
nents that I shall discover and gain in the Ocean Sea." 
In other Avords, Columbus was an explorer and missionary. 

The Ships and the Crew. — In the summer of 1492 a 
royal order commanded the town of Palos to provide two 
vessels for a year, and wages for their crews for four months. 
This was a punishment for some offense against the crown. 
It soon appeared that it was easier to get the wages than 
the crew, for the boldest sailors shrank from the dangers 
of the voyage. Imprisoned criminals were promised that 
they would not be tried until two months after their 
return, but they refused the offer. It was not necessary, 
however, to depend upon the inmates of jails. The Pin- 
zon (pen-thon') brothers, of whom one was going as master 
and two as captains in the fleet, had relatives and friends 
in Palos as well as in other seaports. Their influence 
enabled Columbus to secure capable crews. In addition 
to the two vessels provided by Palos a third was obtained 
from another source. The crews numbered one hundred 
twenty men. 

The Voyage of Discovery. — When everything was in 
readiness, Columbus and his companions went to the 
church in Palos, where prayers were offered for the success 
of the expedition. About sunrise on the following morn- 
ing, Friday, August 3, Columbus gave the signal to weigh 
anchor. For a few hours the winds were at rest. Later 
under a light breeze the three vessels — the Santa Maria 



THE FIRST VOYAGE 



15 



(mah-re'ah) the Pinta (pen'tah) and the Nina (nen'yah) — 
sailed away southward through the "Sea of Darkness." 
Thus was begun the most memorable voyage recorded in 
history. 

After six days the fleet arrived at one of the Canary 
Islands. Here the men altered the sails of the Pinta and 
repaired her rudder. Having taken on wood, water, and 
meat, they resumed the voyage. In a little while they 
were sailing through the Sargasso Sea, where they saw 
tufts of grass-like seaweed, which they 
believed must only a short time before 
have been swept from land. The 
weather, too, grew pleasanter. By 
the end of September the fleet had 
passed through the Sargasso Sea; peli- 
cans were with them, and petrels and 
flying fish were seen daily. 

Signs of Land. — Since leaving 
Spain the winds had been blowing 
constantly toward the west. This 
alarmed the sailors, for they feared 
there were no breezes to waft them 

homeward. Winds from " a different quarter, however, 
soon convinced them that these fears were unfounded. 
On the 7th of October a flock of birds led the Admiral to 
change his course to the southwest. But all signs seemed 
to fail. Then the sailors began to murmur and desired 
the Admiral to return, but he persuaded them to persevere. 

On the 11th of October were seen a stick, a small board, 
and by one of the vessels a bunch of dog-roses. When 
all were assembled to sing the '^ Salve, ''^ which was the 
custom of the sailors, the Admiral cautioned them to 
guard well the forecastle and to watch diligently for land. 
To him who should first see land the King and Queen had 




THE SANTA MARIA 



16 THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY COLUMBUS 

promised a yearly pension for life and in addition to this 
reward the Admiral had offered a silk vest. At ten o'clock 
in the evening Columbus saw a light on shore; two hours 
after midnight land appeared. Sails were lowered and the 
vessels lay to until daybreak. 

Guanahani. — On the morning of October 12, 1492, the 
weary seamen found themselves at a small island of the 
Bahama group, which the natives called Guanaha'ni. On 
it they beheld naked people. Columbus landed and, after 
thanking God, took possession of the country for the king 
and queen of Spain. While this ceremony was in progress 
the natives began to assemble. By the Admiral they are 
described as a handsome race. Presents were liberally 
distributed among them and in a little time trade began. 
Columbus named the island San Salvador (Holy Saviour). 
His controlling thought was the conversion of the inhabit- 
ants. ''If it please our Lord," says he, "at the time of 
my departure, I will take six of them from here to your 
Highnesses that they may learn to speak." ^ Then they 
were to be returned to their own country. 

Other Discoveries. — The Spaniards at once began to 
make a careful exploration of other islands of the Bahama 
group. The sight of a gold ring in the nose of a native 
led to an active search for that metal and thus to a great 
loss of time. Cuba, of which the Admiral soon heard, was 
thought at first to be Cipan'go (Japan). From that island 
it would be only a short distance to the country of the 
Grand Khan, and, once there, he could easily deliver to 
that ruler the letters given him by Ferdinand and Isabella. 
Fully believing that he was among the islands of the Indies, 
as all southeastern Asia was then called, Columbus referred 
to the natives as Indians. 

' When Columbus says "that they may learn to speak," of course he 
means the Spanish language. 



THE FIRST VOYAGE 17 

While he was cruising along the northern coast of Cuba, 
Columbus sent his interpreter into the interior. Though 
he reported a village of naked Indians, the Admiral was 
not undeceived. Without completing the exploration of 
Cuba the fleet sailed to Haiti. From its resemblance to 
Spain this island was named La Isla Espafiola, the Spanish 
island; hence the English name Hispanio'la. 

Wreck of the Santa Maria. — While continuing the ex- 
ploration of Haiti, the Santa Maria ran aground and was 
wrecked. This accident led Columbus to attempt a set- 
tlement. Forty-three men, all volunteers, were left on 
the island, in a little fort and town called Navidad (Na- 
tivity). When the Admiral was taking his departure, he 
urged obedience to their captain and the cultivation of 
friendly relations with the Indians. Above all, they were 
to keep together. The disregard of this sound advice led 
to the complete destruction of the little colony. 

The Return Voyage. — Without warning to Columbus, 
Pinzon had sailed away with the Pinta, and, as we have 
seen, the Santa Maria had been wrecked. This left the 
Admiral with only one small vessel, the Nina, and that 
he did not care to risk in further exploration. He there- 
fore made preparations for returning to Spain. In a short 
time he was joined by the Pinta, and then the homeward 
voyage was begun. 

After escaping two severe storms near the Azores the 
Nina dropped anchor in the Tagus on March 4, 1493. 
Columbus had no choice in the matter or he would not 
have thus trusted himself in the hands of the Portuguese. 
Though .some of the people seemed unfriendly, the king, 
when he knew that Columbus had discovered western 
lands, showed him much honor. As there was no attempt 
to detain him, he set sail for Spain and on the 15th of 
March cast anchor in the harbor of Palos. It would not 




18 



RECEPTION OF COLUMBUS 19 

be possible to describe the rejoicings in that Uttle port. 
The entire population turned out to welcome Columbus 
and " to give thanks to our Lord for so great favor and 
vietor3\" ^ 

Reception of Columbus. — Never was witnessed in 
Spain so splendid a procession as in April, 1493, wound 
its way from Seville to Barcelona. As it passed along the 
highways, all the people crowded up to catch a glimpse of 
the Discoverer, of his Indians, and of the productions of 
their country. When he arrived near Barcelona, he was 
met by many dignitaries and by them escorted to the 
presence of Ferdinand and Isabella. When he went to kiss 
their hands, they arose, as to a person of high rank, and 
caused him to sit beside them. 

Treaty of Tordesillas. — When, on returning from the 
voyage of discovery, Columbus was forced by a storm to 
seek a haven of refuge in Portugal, he was reminded by 
the king of that country that his discoveries might be 
within the limits of Portuguese authority. The danger of 
a conflict of interests between Spain and Portugal led the 
Pope, when requested, to act as umpire. A year later 
(1494), by the treaty of Tordesillas (tor-da-seryahss), it 
was agreed that a line 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde 
Islands should be drawn from pole to pole. East of that 
line Portugal could continue her explorations and west of 
it Spain was free to make discoveries. 

The Transfer of Civilization. — Columbus soon made 
ready for a second voyage, because their Majesties had 
decided to found a colony in the Indies, as the new lands 
were henceforth called. This time there was no lack of 

1 Ferdinand and Isabella hastened to inform Pope Alexander VI, him- 
self a Spaniard, of the exploit of Columbus. In making the announcement 
they mention the existence in the new islands of gold and spices, but at 
the same time they declared that in fitting out the expedition their motives 
were discovery and the extension of Christianity. 



ASTERN AS I V ,<;,|%^i 




DISCOVERY 

ON THE EAST COAST OF 

AMERICA 



Si rail of JUagctlarr-^S- 



■5) «5^S. GEORGIA I. 



20 



SECOND AND THIRD VOYAGES 21 

men, of money, or of ships. B\' September 25, 1493, there 
had been assembled seventeen vessels carrying colonists 
and soldiers to the number of 1500. The Indians, who 
had been converted, were returning to their homes. Be- 
sides its human cargo the fleet brought farming implements, 
plants, and seeds; also horses and cattle. This was the 
first step in the transfer of civilization to the New World. 

Isabella. — One night in November the fleet reached the 
vicinity of Fort Navidad. The salute of the ships was fol- 
lowed by a fearful silence. Toward midnight there came 
from the shore Indians shouting, " Almirante! Almirante!" 
(Admiral! Admiral!). They told Columbus that many of 
the Spaniards had died and that others had gone into the 
country. Morning confirmed his fears. Not a Spaniard 
survived. 

The ill-fated Navidad was abandoned and another loca- 
tion for a settlement was selected on the northern coast of 
Espanola (Haiti). This they appropriately named Isabella, 
the first city of the Indies. Leaving the town to be ruled 
by a commission, the Admiral imdertook a more careful 
exploration of Cuba, which he believed to be a part of the 
mainland of Asia. During his absence the state of affairs 
in Haiti became alarming. Certain officials in the town 
were active in creating discontent, and a few escaped with 
a ship of the Admiral's brother, Bartholomew, who had 
come out as military governor. On their return to Spain 
they gave an account of the country very different from 
that given by Columbus. 

Third Expedition. — In 1496 Columbus returned to 
Spain. The hostility of officials prevented for two years 
his third voyage to the New World, but finally he brought 
together a small fleet, one part of which sailed directly 
for Haiti, while the other took a more southerly route. 
It was on this voyage that Columbus first sighted the 



22 THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY COLUMBUS 

mainland of America. On July 31, 1498, he beheld Trini- 
dad (Trinity) and on the following day was coasting along 
the continent of South America, which he told his sover- 
eigns was " another world." 

The Admiral's Downfall. — Discontented men roamed 
over the island of Haiti committing all sorts of excesses 
and unsettling the friendly relations that Columbus had 
established with the Indians. The leader of the discon- 
tented found himself supported by most of the Spanish 
settlers against those whom they called '' upstart foreign- 
ers." The rank, the merit, and the services of the Admiral 
could not silence the voice of slander. This condition put 
a stop to further discovery. 

King Ferdinand empowered Bobadilla, who was sent 
from Spain, to decide all matters between the Admiral and 
the colonists. If he found Columbus and his brother 
guilty, he was instructed to supersede them. It is enough 
to say that Bobadilla, without any trial, had them put in 
irons and separately confined on board a ship until it 
sailed for Spain. The humane officers of the returning 
vessel offered to remove the irons from Columbus, but he 
said that his treatment had been ordered by their Majesties 
and by them the irons should be removed. 

When the discoverer's treatment became known, all 
Spain was indignant. Convinced of his innocence, the 
sovereigns ordered the prisoner set at liberty. A sum of 
money was sent to the Admiral together with a grateful 
and affectionate letter inviting him to court. No atten- 
tion was paid to the charges against him, but his rights 
were not restored. 

Fourth and Last Voyage. — In May, 1502, Columbus 
set out on his fourth and last voyage, intending to reach 
India. In the matter of time this was his longest voyage. 
Along the Honduras coast he saw natives with a civiliza- 



FOURTH VOYAGE 



23 



tion superior to that of the naked Indians of San Salvador, 
and farther on he heard of a sea (the Pacific Ocean), which 
he supposed to be part of the Indian Ocean. But after 
many weary weeks he was forced to turn back with- 
out finding any strait 



SCALE OF MILES 
^Sf ^ ' idO 4*0 ' 6(50 

M.^'t, ATLANTIC 

^vv SAN SALVADOR 

.»-%^ OCEAN- 



PORJO RICO 




which would lead to that 
ocean. 

Death of the Discov- 
erer. — Late in 1504, 
Columbus was back in 
Spain, his health greatly 
broken. Though he some- 
times appeared at court, 
he grew gradually weaker 
and on the eve of the As- 
cension, May 20, 1506, 

died at Valladolid. His last days were spent in obscurity. 
Though the world did not note his departure, " Columbus 
was," says an able American historian, " one of the greatest 
characters that ever passed before the eyes of men." ^ 



LANDS DISCOVERED BY COLUMBUS 



Questions and References 

Review Questions. — While the Portuguese were engaged in 
African exploration, what were the Spaniards doing? What project 
did Columbus submit to Ferdinand and Isabella? Who is mainly 
deserving of credit for the project of Columbus? What do we know 
of the manner of his equipment? What was his great object? 
Describe the discovery, the return voyage, and the nature of his 
reception by the Spanish sovereigns. 

What was the treaty of Tordesillas? How was civilization car- 
ried to the New World? On what voyage did Columbus discover 
the mainland of America? Describe his downfall and his death. 

References. — Charles H. McCarthy, Columbus and his Prede- 
cessors; E. G. Bourne, Spain in America. 

1 Thacher, Columbus, I, 86. 



CHAPTER III 
EXPLORATION AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS 

Cabot's Explorations for England. — The claim of 
England to the Atlantic coast of North America was based 
on the discoveries of John Cabot, an Italian sailor in the 
service of Henry VII, the last great Catholic king of 
England. When the deeds of Columbus were talked of 
and praised at the court of that monarch, John Cabot was 
living in that country.^ With the permission of King 
Henry VII and the assistance of some merchants, he ob- 
tained a small vessel and a crew of eighteen, nearly all 
Englishmen from Bristol. In command of this expedition 
he set out for the west in May, 1497, and sailed until the 
24th of June, when he found himself on the shores of what 
is thought to have been Labrador or the island of Cape 
Breton. Sailing along an unknown coast for, perhaps, a 
thousand miles, he then returned to England. ^ He sup- 
posed that the land he saw was the eastern coast of Asia. 
In the following year, 1498, Cabot led another expedition 
further to explore the lands that he had discovered, but of 
his return there is no record. Though there is the greatest 
obscurity as to the extent of his voyages, England by 
reason of them claimed the land from Florida to Labrador. 

Portuguese Explorations; Cabral. — ^ In the year 1500 
a fleet under Cabral' left Portugal with rich cargoes for 
the eastern trade. This commander, who was no timid 

1 Like Columbus, John Cabot was a native of Genoa, though he became 
a naturalized citizen of Venice. Therefore he is sometimes called a Vene- 
tian. 

2 An entry in the royal accounts shows that the frugal Henry VH gave 
"To hym that found the New Isle, £10." 

24 



PORTUGUESE EXPLORATION 25 

sailor, kept well off the coast of Africa. Indeed he sailed 
so far out to sea that in April he came, quite unexpectedly, 
on a strange coast. After cruising long enough to know 
that he was not on the shores of an island, he sent a vessel 
back to Portugal with tidings of his discovery and sug- 
gested to his king that the new continent be more carefully 
explored. Then he resumed his voyage to India. 

Vespucius. — It was in 1499 that Amerigo Vespucci 
(ah-ma-re'go ves-poot'che) — or Americus Vespucius — first 
visited the southern continent. With him was Juan de la 
Cosa (hwahn da lah co'sah), who had sailed with Columbus. 
For some reason Americus removed to Portugal, where he 
was living when Cabral's ship returned with tidings of his 
discovery. The king was glad to bring into his service one 
who was already familiar with the Indies. In 1501, with 
Americus as chief pilot, three ships sailed for the land seen 
by Cabral. They came on the coast near Cape St. Roque 
and for a great distance explored the shores of the country 
that we know as Brazil. As much of this land was east of 
the demarcation line (page 20) it was claimed and later settled 
by the Portuguese. 

Naming America. — Vespucius wrote accounts of the 
lands that he had seen. Early in the sixteenth century 
it happened that the little college of St. Die (san dya') in 
the Vosges (vozh) Mountains included among its teachers 
two men who were preparing a new edition of a geog- 
raphy. One of them, Martin Waldseemiiller (vahlt-sa- 
mel'er), suggested that the new southern continent be 
called America, in honor of the Italian writer and navi- 
gator, Americus Vespucius. This geography, which was 
printed in 1507, gave the name America to the southern 
continent only, for the new lands to the north were then 
supposed to be part of Asia; but in time the name came 
to be applied to the northern continent also. 



26 



EXPLORATION AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS 



Spanish Exploration and Conquest 

Discovery of the Pacific. — The Spaniards estabhshed 
colonies not only in Haiti, but also on other islands and 
on the mainland. Among the earliest settlements was one 

on the Isthmus of 
Darien', or Pana- 
ma'. Sailing to that 
little colony from 
Haiti, a captain 
found on his vessel 
one Vasco Nunez 
de Balbo'a, who 
had stowed himself 
away in order to 
escape his credi- 
tors. When the 
ship arrived at the 
isthmus of Darien, 
Balboa became a 
popular leader and 
defied the governor 
of the settlement. 
Later he learned 
that toward the 
west was an ocean 
which washed the 
shores of lands 
rich in gold. With 
a strong force he 
set out to find the sea which would convey him to that 
favored region. From a peak on Darien he beheld, in 
September, 1513, a bay which led him to the Pacific, which 
he called the South Sea. Wading into its waters with a 




BALBOA TAKES POSSESSION OF THE PACIFIC 



SPANISH EXPLORERS 27 

banner and a drawn sword, he took possession for Spain of 
both the boundless sea and its shores. 

Discovery of Florida. — The first undoubted exploration 
of Florida"^ was that of Juan Ponce de Leon (pon'tha da 
la-on'), governor of Porto Rico, a Spaniard who had come 
to the New World with Columbus in 1493. It may have 
been that he was anxious to win faine as a discoverer or 
that, as is generally believed, he was still more eager to 
feel once more in his veins the warm blood of youth. 
Twenty years in the tropics had told on this fearless 
warrior, and he wished personally to test the merits of a 
fountain said to exist in a land far to the north and be- 
lieved to possess the property of restoring youth. 

In the same year that Balboa first gazed on the Pacific, 
Ponce de Leon saw to the west, as he cruised northward 
in search of the fabled fountain, a land of waving woods 
and beautiful flowers. This he sighted about Easter Sun- 
day, 1513, and in honor of the day called it Florida,^ a 
name by which the Spaniards knew all the land north of 
the Gulf of Mexico. In the year 1521 he was again on the 
Florida coast for the purpose of making a settlement. 
His colonists, however, were promptly attacked by the 
Indians, who killed and wounded many, among them 
Ponce de Leon himself, who died in Cuba soon after his 
return.' 

' Earlier voyages to that region are thought to have been made. 

2 In the Spanish language Easter, the church feast commemorating the 
resurrection, is Pascua de resurreccidn o florida. The word florida means 
flowery, full of flowers. 

' Among other Spanish explorers of this period may be mentioned 
Cor'dova, who visited (1517) the peninsula of Yucatan, and Pineda (pe- 
na'dah), who reported the finding (1.519) of a great river (probably the 
Mississippi), which he called Rio del Espiritu Santo (River of the Holy 
Ghost). In 1521 Ayllon (Il-yon') sent to the coast of Florida an expedition 
which kidnaped a cargo of natives. In 1526 he tried in person to make a 
settlement north of Cape Hatteras. 



28 EXPLORATION AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS 

Discovery of the Philippines. — The story of Spanish en- 
deavor to Christianize races, some of wliich were yet to 
pass the cannibal state, is a record of courage and sacrifice 
perhaps unequaled in the history of the human race. 
Spain gave to civilization a new world; she began the 
transfer of civilization to the two American continents 
and to two great archipelagoes, — the West Indies and the 
Philippines. We have already learned how the New World 
was discovered by Columbus; we are now to see how 
another great navigator won the Philippines for Spain. 

Ferdinand Magel'lan had gained skill and knowledge in 
the commerce of Portugal, his native land ; and after trans- 
ferring his services to Spain he was entrusted with a fleet 
of five vessels. His purpose was to discover a strait lead- 
ing into the ocean seen by Balboa, and through it to reach 
the Moluccas or Spice Islands by a westward voyage. 
This voyage, destined to be the longest yet made, was 
begun on the 10th of August, 1519, from Seville, Spain. 
The fleet was soon at the Canaries and appears to have 
met with no unusual experiences as far as Brazil, where 
there was some trade with natives, who were still cannibals. 
A later anchorage was in the desolate bay of St. Julian on 
the shores of Patagonia, There the fleet remained for five 
months, entering into trade with the giant natives. In 
exploring the coast one of Magellan's ships was wrecked. 
The remaining vessels resumed their voyage. On October 
21, 1520, they entered a strait which proved to be " one 
hundred and ten leagues long." Here one of Magellan's 
ships deserted. On November 28th was begun the long 
voyage over the trackless ocean, which because of its free- 
dom from storms Magellan named the Pacific. For one 
hundred and ten days they sailed on without coming, to 
land. Their provisions exhausted, they suffered almost 
incredible hardships before reaching the Ladrone Islands. 



SPANISH IN THE PHILIPPINES 



29 



Finally, the three vessels arrived at the Philippines, which 
group was named in honor of King Philip. 

Death of Magellan, — On East- 
er Sunday mass was celebrated 
on shore and a cross planted in 
one of the highest places of an 
island. Before engaging in trade 
Magellan endeavored to convert 
the natives to Christianity. All 
the people of that island and 
many from the neighboring is- 




MAGELLAN S LAST BATTLE 



lands were converted. On the invitation of these island- 
ers, the commander sailed with three boatloads of men 
to punish their enemies. The battle went sore against 
the Spaniards, and but for the courage of their leader 



30 EXPLORATION AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS 

they must all have perished. In covering the retreat of 
his men to their boats, and while knee deep in the water, 
Magellan was singled out by the savages and fatally 
wounded. Soon after his death more than a score of 
the Spaniards were decoyed to a banquet and murdered. 

First Circumnavigation of the Globe. — One of Magel- 
lan's ships, the Victoria, with a crew of sixty, now attempted 
the voyage to Spain by way of the Cape of Good Hope. 
After escaping shipwreck they came at last to the Cape 
Verde Islands, where, at the risk of capture by the vessels 
of Portugal, they took on fresh provisions. On Septem- 
ber 8, 1522, the Victoria and eighteen survivors of her crew 
were back in Seville. On the next day that little band of 
heroes visited in procession two of its famous shrines and 
thanked God for their return .^ 

The great achievement of Magellan proved that the 
southern continent is separated from Asia by the vast 
width of the Pacific Ocean. His expedition found a west- 
ern route to the Spice Islands, where the Portuguese had 
been trading for at least ten years, and finally proved that 
the earth is round. 

Mexico and Peru. — Near Honduras, Columbus once 
saw natives not like the naked Indians of Guanahani, but 
people who wore cotton clothing. Had he continued 
toward the north on his last voyage, instead of seeking a 
strait to the ocean beyond, he might have heard of Mexico, 
a land which contained more silver than he had ever 
desired. But the winning of wealth and fame in the 
northern regions was reserved for Hernando Cor'tes, whose 
exploits in the land of the Aztecs equal in interest almost 
anything that we read in romance. Interesting though it 
is, the conquest of Mexico, between 1519 and 1521, forms 

1 Of this memorable voyage an interesting account was written by 
Antonio Pigafetti, an Italian gentleman who accompanied Magellan and 
who was among the survivors. 



SPANISH EXPLORERS 31 

no part of the history of the United States.^ Another con- 
quest, no less brilhant, and to Spain a source of no less treas- 
ure, was the winning of Peru in 1533, by Francisco Fizar'ro. 

Spaniards in the United States. — In hopes of winning 
similar treasure in Florida, the Spanish explorer Narvaez 
(nar-vah'eth) led in 1528 an expedition through the south- 
ern part of our country. For this adventure he brought 
six hundred men from Spain, but desertions and losses by 
shipwreck weakened the party somewhat before landing 
in Florida. Marching through swamps and forests, they 
fought Indians and sought for gold. Of the entire company 
a mere handful made their way along the shore of the 
Gulf of Mexico. The four survivors landed somewhere 
to the west of the Mississippi and joined the Indians, by 
whom at first they were treated with great harshness. 
Alvar Nuiiez Cabeza de Vaca (noo-nyeth cah-l^a-thah da 
yah'cah) after his return to Spain wrote a thrilling account 
of their wanderings. 

De Soto's Exploration. — One of Pizarro's lieutenants, 
Hernando de So'to, had acted a gallant part in the con- 
quest of Peru, but had not won the confidence of his leader. 
In time he returned to Spain. With his own eyes De Soto 
had seen Pizarro acquire untold riches, and he knew that 
his kinsman, Cortes, had won wealth and fame in Mexico. 
He was dreaming of conquests when Cabeza de Vaca in- 
terested all Spain in his story of vast lands and of treasure. 
In fact, he had already selected his field and had begun to 
assemble his followers when he heard the new tidings. 

By the year 1539 De Soto with six hundred men arrived 
at a harbor on the west coast of Florida. As soon as they 
landed, there began a repetition of the awful experiences 
of Narvaez. Marching, wading, fighting, killing, and kid- 
naping, made up the labors of the day. It is believed that 

1 From 1521 to 1821 Mexico continued to be a colony of Spain. 



32 



EXPLORATION AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS 



the Spaniards marched as far north as the Savannah 
River. From that point they turned southwest until they 
arrived at a fortified town on the banks of the Alabama. 
There lay thousands of warriors concealed in the forests; 
but De Soto won a complete victory over the Indians. 
Their town also was destroyed. The Spaniards, however, 




LANDS IN NORTH AMERICA EXPLORED BY SPAIN, TO IGOO 

did not escape without loss, for in the flames their baggage 
was destroyed. In another victory they lost fifty horses 
and four hundred hogs. When their clothing and weap- 
ons wore out or were lost, they made wooden lances and 
clothed themselves in the skins of beasts. Thus accoutred 
they marched in L541 to what they called the Great River, 
but which is known to us as the Mississippi (Father of 
Waters). It is believed that De Soto and his men crossed 
the mighty river at Chickasaw Bluff and journeyed thence 



SPANISH EXPLORERS 33 

northwestward into Arkansas. In the spring they were 
once more at the Mississippi, where De Soto, disappointed 
and sick of a fever, died. He was buried in the middle of 
the great river which he had discovered. 

At last the Spaniards built ships, drifted with the cur- 
rent, and followed the coast westward to a Spanish settle- 
ment in Mexico. Of the six hundred that had undertaken 
the conquest of Florida there survived three hundred and 
eleven worn cavaliers. Their first act was to visit the church 
and thank God for what they deemed a miraculous escape. 

Marcos and Coronado. — The four survivors of the ex- 
pedition of Narvaez had seen "hunch-back cows" (buffalo) 
and had heard of the Seven Cities of Cib'ola.i The Indi- 
ans had told tales of silver. Nevertheless, the governor 
of New Spain, as Mexico was then called, was too prudent 
to risk the sending of a large force so far north, and instead 
ordered missionaries to enter the unknown regions and 
report what they could see and hear. Of a number sent 
forth there returned only one, Father Marcos de Niza 
(ne'thah), an able Franciscan. From a distance he had 
seen a town of very fine appearance; the houses, as the 
Indians had told him, were "all of stone, built in stories 
and with flat roofs." 

The governor had little trouble in raising a strong force, 
which was commanded by Vasquez de Coronado (vahss'- 
keth da c6-ro-nah'tho). Among other things accomplished 
by his famous expedition (1540-1542) was the conquest 
of one of the Seven Cities, which the invaders found to 
be merely the community dwellings of Indians. The 

' The Arabian conquest of the Spanish peninsula was begun in the year 
711 A.D. After that time, according to a well-known legend, a bishop of 
Lisbon and many followers fled to certain islands in the Sea of Darkness, 
and on them the fugitives founded seven cities. This tradition of the 
Spaniards was mixed up with an Indian story, and more than one of their 
explorers dreamed of discovering the Seven Cities of Cibola. 



34 



EXPLORATION AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS 



Grand Canon of the Colorado they saw and vividly de- 
scribed. In short, Coronado explored a vast region and 
solved the mystery of the Seven Cities of Cibola, but 
found little wealth. 

About the same time Cabrillo (cah-brel'yo) and his suc- 
cessor explored the Pacific coast almost to the mouth of 
the Columbia. The fatal beauty of Florida still continued 
to attract the adventurous Spaniards. Father Luis Cancer 




THE SPANISH GOVERNOR S PALACE, SANTA FE 

and other missionaries arrived near Tampa in the year 
1549, but the natives promptly put them to death. The 
country traversed by the subjects of Spain stretched from 
ocean to ocean, but up to the year 1565 they did not 
make any permanent settlement within the limits of what 
is now the continental United States.^ 

1 Though Santa Fe was the seat of Spanish power in the New Mexico 
region, in the beginning no church was built there. The Franciscans, 
however, labored diligently among the Indian pueblos and by 1608 were 



FRENCH EXPLORERS 35 

French Exploration and Settlement 

Voyage of Verrazano. — As early as 1503 John Denys 
(deh-ne') is said to have visited the dangerous shores of 
the Gulf of St. Lawrence. But the first systematic 
French exploration of the New World was made by an 
Italian in the service of King Francis I, in 1524. This 
man, a bold and intelligent seaman named John of Verra- 
zano (ver-ra-tsah'no), was sent to explore the western 
seas and perhaps to capture treasure ships of Spain. It is 
claimed that he visited what is now the harbor of New 
York; that he remained for a time in Narragansett Bay 
and sailed as far north as Nova Scotia before returning to 
France. The voyage of Verrazano gave France a claim 
to the Atlantic coast of North America. 

Cartier's Voyages. — In 1534, Jacques Cartier (zhak 
car-tya') entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence as well as the 
river of that name. The next year he sailed up the great 
river, which he believed would take him to the East. In 
1541 he returned to the St. Lawrence and built a fort 
near the site of Quebec, but after a severe winter went 
home. 

The Huguenot Settlements. — Though the English were 
the first to explore the Atlantic . coast of North America, 
their old rivals, the French, made the earlier attempts at 
its settlement. 

Jean Ribaut (re-bo'), after a short voyage along the 
Florida coast, sailed northward and in 1562, near the site 
of the present city of Beaufort, S. C, built a fort in which 
he left a garrison of thirty men and then returned to France. 
These settlers, known as Hu'guenots, were followers of John 

able to report 8000 baptisms. Ten years afterward Father Jerome de 
Zarate Salmeron baptized other thousands and composed in one of the 
Indian languages a catechism and other works. From these facts it is 
clear that Santa F6 is one of the oldest cities in the United States. 



36 



EXPLORATION AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS 



Calvin. The brief existence of this httle colony was marked 
by hunger, mutiny, and bloodshed. They killed their lead- 
ers, built a rude boat, and sailed for home.^ 

Two years later, Rene de Laudonniere (reh-na' deh lo-don~ 
nyair') brought to the river St. Johns in Florida a number 
of French settlers, nearly all Huguenots, who attempted to 
found a colony on its banks. But instead of tilling the 
soil they searched for treasure, interfered in the wars of 




CARTIER's expedition at the site of MONTREAL 



the Indians, and quarreled among themselves. Thirteen 
of the discontented then stole away in boats and began to 
plunder the coast of Cuba. Hunger finally forced them 
to surrender to the Spaniards at Havana and to reveal the 
existence of a French settlement in Florida. Later another 
band of mutineers compelled Laudonniere to give them a 

> Before reaching Europe they drew lots to see which of their number 
should be slain to provide food for the otliers. Just as the flesh of the first 
victim gave out, they came in sight of their native land. Unfortunate to 
the last, they were captured by an English vessel. 



FRENCH AND SPANISH 




FORT CAROLINE, THE FRENCH POST ON 
THE ST. JOHNS RIVER 



commission to fight the Spaniards. They soon returned un- 
successful and starving. Laudonniere overpowered them, 
and for mutiny put four of the ringleaders to death. These 
events, together with 
earlier attacks by 
French pirates, con- 
vinced the Spanish 
government that the 
settlement must be 
broken up. 

When the colo- 
nists on the St. Johns 
were in great dis- 
tress, Ribaut arrived 
with supplies and 
more settlers. At 
the same time the 
Spaniards, whom the mutineers had been plundering, 
brought a fleet to retaliate. 

Founding of St. Augustine. — The commander of this 
Spanish fleet was Pedro Menendez (ma-nen'deth). A hur- 
ricane left him with but three ships. Nevertheless he re- 
mained on the coast, was attacked by the French vessels, 
and, though he followed them out to sea, was unable to 
overtake them. Thereupon the Spaniards sailed south- 
ward and on September 5, 1565, began the settlement of 
St. Augustine, the oldest town within the limits of the 
continental United States. Afterward Ribaut and his 
followers fell into the hands of Menendez and most of 
them were put to death. Those who surrendered on con- 
dition, four carpenters, a few who declared themselves 
Catholics, fifty women, and the younger children were 
spared. According to the best accounts Menendez con- 
tinued to kill his prisoners until his own force was stronger 



38 EXPLORATION AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS 

than that of his enemy. At that point he felt it safe to 
spare the remainder.^ 

Dominic de Gourgues. — When these French subjects 
were slaughtered in Florida, the king of France was striv- 
ing to keep peace between the Catholics and the Calvin- 
ists in his own kingdom. One of his subjects, however, 
took matters into his own hands. In 1568 Dominic de 
Gourgues (goorg) fitted out at his personal expense three 
small vessels and with two hundred men surprised one of 
the Spanish forts and put to death every person in it. 
On his return to France he received no reward for his 
services. Perhaps his king did not believe that a private 
person had any right to commit such an act and perhaps 
he was not prepared to go to war with Spain, which was 
still a strong power. 

Port Royal Settled. — Not till the spring of 1605 was a 
permanent French settlement made in America. At that 
time there arrived a band of colonists who had come out 
in 1604 under De Monts (deh-mawn') and Champlain'. 
After a dreary winter passed on an island in the St. Croix 
River, the survivors removed to Port Royal (Annapolis), 
in the land of Acadia (Nova Scotia). 

Founding of Quebec. — The king of France had given 
to De Monts the trade of that part of North America 
between the fortieth and the forty-sixth parallels of lati- 
tude ;2 and had also made him a viceroy and directed him 

' This affair, Lad enough in any view, is misrepresented in some books, 
where it is said that the French, who were nearly all Protestants, were 
massacred by the Spaniards on account of their religion. There is.no doubt 
that the religion of the French settlers added to the anger of the Spaniards, 
but it must also be remembered that the Spaniards first knew their neigh- 
bors as pirates. The French Huguenots were just as cruel as Spanish 
Catholics. About ten years before, 1555, Jacques de Sorie captured the 
castle at Havana and though he promised quarter to its garrison, put all 
his prisoners to the sword. He then burned churches and mutilated images. 

2 The southern half of the region shown on the map opposite. The entire 
region was then a wilderness, with no white inhabitants. 



FOUNDING OF QUEBEC 



39 



to establish a settlement. Huguenot colonists were granted 
religious freedom. Champlain was quick to perceive the 
natural strength of the rock of Quebec and recommended 
it to De Monts as an admirable site for a colony. ^ 



GULF OF /1L~- ^ 




M U I /N E 












> 





^ 







SCALE or MILES 




r 


5'0 lou 20 



CANADA AND ACADIA 

In 1608 with men, arms, and stores, Champlain sailed up 
the St. Lawrence and put up three buildings, surrounded by 
a strong wooden wall, that made the beginnings of Quebec. 
For the first winter this post was held by twenty-eight men, 
of whom only eight survived until the following spring. 

1 When the settlers on St. Croix Island, perishing of cold, hunger, and 
scurvy, were in a state of despair, Champlain was hopeful and with the 
return of spring went on with his explorations. If his spirit was darkened 
by failure, no one could perceive it in his cheerful manner. At that time he 
visited and named the island of Mount Desert, sailed by the mouth of the 
Penobscot, and explored the lower Kennebec. By July 15, when De Monts 
was with the party, they saw the outlines of Cape Ann, entered Massa- 



40 



EXPLORATION AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS 



Making War on the Iroquois. — A young Indian chief, 
amazed at the l^uildings that he saw on liis first visit to 

Quebec, begged Champlain 
-^^ to join him in a campaign 

against his enemies, the 
Iroquois or Five Nations, 
who dwelt in central New 
York and were the terror 
of all the tribes in the 
wilderness. Late in June, 
1609, Champlain with a 
few Frenchmen in a shallop 
sailed up the St. Lawrence. 
They were soon at the 
mouth of the RicheUeu, 
where, as a result of a 
quarrel, many of the In- 
dians, who had come in 
canoes, paddled homeward. 
The remainder carried their 
canoes around the rapids 
and then resuming their 
voyage passed meadows, 
forests, and islands as they 
paddled up the river and up the long and beautiful lake 
which still bears the name of Champlain. At last they 

chusetts Bay, and passed Nantaskot Beach. Head winds forced them to 
seek shelter in Plymouth Harbor, where the Pilgrims arrived fifteen years 
later. All this time Champlain was making maps and charts. His accounts 
threw much light on the dark places in New World geography. 

The undertaking of Dc Monta in Acadia was ruined by the hostility of 
the English and the treach(!ry of his countrymen, yet notwithstanding his 
experience, he was still ambitious to found colonies. Champlain, on the 
other hand, longed to learn the mysteries of the wilderness, to discover a 
water route to China, and to plant the Catholic faith and the power of 
France in the forests of the New World. 




STATUE OF CHAMPLAIN AT 
QUEBEC 



ENGLISH EXPLORERS 41 

saw the canoes of a large hand of the enemy. The Iro- 
quois hinded and built a rude fort on the wooded shore. 
Promising to fight to-morrow, the Indians passed much 
of the night in exchanging abuse. In the morning two 
hundred warriors trooped out of their barricade, many of 
them wearing shields of wicker or of hide, a perfect pro- 
tection against arrows. 

When Champlain, in armor, with a sword at his side and 
an arquebus in his hand, ca.me to the front, the Iroquois 
were amazed, but in a little while they drew their bows. 
At this he leveled his piece, loaded with four l)alls, at one 
of the chiefs and fired. This shot brought down two 
Indians and wounded a third. On this Champlain's allies 
began to give deafening shouts. Both sides filled the air 
with arrows. When another Frenchman, concealed in the 
woods, fired a shot, the Iroquois abandoned their canoes 
as well as their dead chiefs, and fied into the depths of the 
forest. In their flight provisions were left behind and 
weapons flung away. The victory was complete. Writing 
of this campaign, Parkman says: "Champlain had in- 
vaded the tiger's den; and now, in smothered fury, the 
patient savage would bide his day of blood." ^ 

English Exploration and Settlement 

English Exploration Resumed. — From the year 1498, 
when John Cabot made his last voyage to America, until 
1576, when Martin Frob'isher led the first of his three 
expeditions into the Arctic regions, England showed little 
interest in the New World. During that time, indeed, 
some of her fishermen followed their trade on the banks 
of Newfoundland. When Cabot found the " New Isle " 
(Newfoundland), all England was Catholic, but when Frob- 

1 Pioneers of France in the New World, Frontenac edition, II, 178. 



42 EXPLORATION AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS 

isher took up the work of discovery almost the entire 
nation had become Protestant. In 1558 Ehzabeth became 
queen, but it was not until she was securely seated on the 
throne that Englishmen again turned their attention to 
the new lands. 

Sir Francis Drake. — Frobisher's three voyages (1576- 
1579) were made in search of a northwest passage to 
China. At the same time, 1577, the pirate Drake passed 
through the Strait of Magellan and sailed northward along 
the western coast of South America, plundering merchant 
vessels and terrorizing defenseless people. His robberies 
aroused the Spaniards, from whom he had taken fabulous 
sums in gold and silver. Warships watched for his return, 
but he never came back. It was in vain that he sought a 
northeast passage to Europe; failing in that effort, he 
wintered on the California coast, and named the country 
New Albion.^ He then struck boldly across the Pacific, 
and in 1580 reached England by way of the Cape of Good 
Hope. Drake's ship was thus the second to sail around 
the globe. His piracy was approved and rewarded by 
Ehzabeth, who raised him to the rank of knighthood. 

The Naming of Virginia, — While Drake was gorging 
himself with plunder, other Englishmen were planning 
schemes of colonization. ^ Sir Walter Raleigh received a 
grant of land for the purpose of colonizing, but before 
sending out settlers he directed two captains, Am'adas 
and Bar'lowe, to explore it. They returned with a glowing 
account of what they had seen. Their description, touched 
up by the poetic pen of Raleigh, was given to Queen 
Elizabeth. Greatly pleased with it, she named the beau- 
tiful country Virginia, in honor of her unmarried state. 

* Albion is a poetic name for England. 

2 In the year 1583 Sir Hunnphrey Gilbert tried in vain to make a settle- 
ment in Newfoundland. On his return to England the ship in which he 
sailed went down with all on board. 



ENGLISH ROANOKE COLONY 



43 



The Roanoke Settlements. — The place selected by the 
agents of Raleigh was Roanoke Island, on the coast of what 
is now North Carolina. In 1585 Ralph 
Lane carried thither about 100 settlers, 
all men. They were compelled to 
make their living from the forests and 
fields around them. For this they 
were but ill fitted. The Indians showed 
signs of hostility, and the settlers were 
in danger of perishing when Drake 
took them back to England.^ 

The expense of Raleigh's first ven- 
ture was very great, but at that time 
he had a good income. He was a suc- 
cessful courtier, a good soldier, and 
a poet of no small talent. These 
and other qualities recommended him 
to the Queen, who allowed him 
many privileges. Believing that 
a mixed colony would be ,<f*^ 
more likely to prosper, he 
sent out in 1587, under 
John White, women and 
children as well as men. 
In all there were about 108. 
Mrs. Eleanor Dare, White's 
daughter, gave birth to a child, who was named Virginia. 
Thus had Virginia Dare the distinction of being the first 

' Though Raleigh must have been discouraged to see his colonists at 
home again, the attempt was not a complete failure. It was these return- 
ing settlers who brought the potato to England. Raleigh soon planted 
this vegetable on his estate in Ireland. His colonists also brought with 
them the dried leaves of the tobacco plant, which they had seen the Indians 
smoke. They believed it would cure almost any disease; therefore they 
introduced the habit of smoking or, as it was called at first, "drinking" 
tobacco. 




LOOKING FOR THE LOST SETTLE- 
MENT AT ROANOKE 



44 EXPLORATION AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS 

American child of English parents. Soon after Governor 
White returned to England for supplies. 

Defeat of the Armada. — At that time English subjects 
were encouraged to attack Spanish vessels wherever found. 
These methods finally led to a resolution on the part of 
Philip II, of Spain, to make war on England. Accordingly 
in 1588 the Armada, a fleet of 149 warships, carrying 
30,000 men, sailed to attack England. The English hav- 
ing a much larger fleet, though scarcely half as many sea- 
men, won an advantage at the outset, and the injury then 
begun was completed by heavy gales. John White's ship 
was needed against the Armada. Before he was free to 
return to Roanoke Island, three years had passed. Then 
he could find no trace of the settlement. To this day we 
know nothing of the fate of the colony of Roanoke. It is 
probable that on some unmanageable raft they were lost 
at sea. 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — Who was John Cabot and what did he 
accomplish? Explain the naming of America. 

Tell what you know of Spanish exploration and conquest. Relate 
the story of the first circumnavigation of the globe. Who was 
De Soto? What did Coronado do? 

What was accomplished by John of Verrazano? By Cartier? 
Tell the story of the Huguenot settlements on the south Atlantic 
coast. Who was De Gourgues? Name and give the dates of found- 
ing of the first French settlements in Canada. 

Tell what you know of Drake, and of Raleigh. Describe the 
attempts of Raleigh to found a colony. What led to the fitting out 
by Spain of the great Armada? 

References. — Henry Harrisse, John Cabot and his Son Sebastian; 
R. G. Thwaites, The Colonies (Epochs of American History, Vol. L) ; 
Bourne, Spain in America; Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New 
World; Edward Channing, History of the United States. 



CHAPTER IV 
THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN 

A New Race. — When Columbus and his followers dis- 
covered America, they found the land already occupied 
by a race different from any that was known to people of 
the Old World. From Labrador to Patagonia, and from 
Alaska to Tierra del Fuego, wherever Europeans touched 
the New World, they saw men of this strange race. Colum- 
bus, believing that he was among the islands off the south- 
east coast of Asia, called them Indians (Indios)} 

Indian Nations. — Indians have usually been classified 
because of differences of language. Thus the great Algon- 
quin nation included tribes which occupied the vast tract 
between Hudson Bay and North Carolina and between 
the Atlantic Ocean and the Mississippi River. In the 
midst of that territory was the powerful Iroquois nation.^ 
North of the Gulf of Me^co were the Muskhoge'an tribes, 
including the Choctaws, Chick'asaws, Creeks, and Sem'i- 
noles; also the Cataw'bas and the Yam'assees. West of 
the Mississippi were many different groups of tribes. 

Except the very lowest, the Indians dwelt in strongly 
built houses. The most backward, indeed, lived in wig- 

' In the age of Columbus, Europeans were accustomed to speak of all 
southeastern Asia, with the neighboring islands, as India or the Indies. 

2 This famous league was composed of the Five Nations, namely, the 
Mohawks, Onei'das, Ononda'gas, Cayu'gas, and Sen'ecas in New York. 
The Tuscaro'ras and Cher'okees lived in Tennessee, North Carolina, and 
Georgia. To the north of Lake Erie dwelt the Hurons; south of that 
body of water were the Eries. These four tribes lived at a distance from 
the confederacy in central New York, but their language showed their 
connection with the Iroquois. 

45 



46 



THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN 



warns, which were made by placing saphngs upright in a 
circle, driving them firmly into the ground, bringing them 
together at the top and covering the whole with bark or 

skins. Among the Iro- 
quois the so-called ''long 
house," divided into 
apartments, was large 
enough to hold twenty, 
thirty, or even fifty fam- 
ihes. 

The Clan and the 
Tribe. — All those dwell- 
ing in the same house 
were supposed to be de- 
scended from a single 
female ancestor. A group of such families formed a clan, 
which had its own property, worship, and emblem. Except 
weapons and trinkets, Indians generally had no property. 
All goods belonged to the clan, which had its own religious 








A " LONG HOUSE ' 



ceremonies and its own name. The name was nearly 
always derived from some animal, such as the bear, fox, 
turtle, or snake. This animal was held sacred, and its 
carved image was known as the totem. A number of 
such clans, speaking the same language, united to form a 
tribe. A chief was often chosen for his cunning and strength 



THE HALF-CIVILIZED INDIANS 



47 



in battle. Besides the cliief, who was a military leader, 
there was a civil leader known as a sachem. In tribal 
affairs women as well as men took part. 

The Half-Civilized Indians. — Semi-civilized Indians 
were to be found from New Mexico to Chile. They had a 
rude system of picture writing; they had learned to bring 
water from mountain streams to their parched corn fields; 







^^^ 




ri^s^^^^s&es^ 



.--}>'L\-"^ fa.LL, 



A MLLAGE OF TIIF PLEBLO 
INDIAN& 

also to build strong furt-like ^ 
houses of adobe (ah-do'ba) ^ 
or sun-dried brick. Such a ^^ 

fortress, containing hundreds ^ 

of rooms, would be the home 

of a whole village. The arrangement was intended chiefly 
as a defense against neighboring savage tribes and was 
generally seen among the Pueblo (pwa'blo) Indians.^ Fre- 
quently they dug dwellings into the faces of dizzy cliffs, 
which seemed almost inaccessible, but even this was not a 
perfect defense. The Hopi (ho'pe) of Arizona, and the 
Zuiii (zoo'nye) of New Mexico, are Pueblo Indians. 



1 Pueblo is the Spanish word for village or town. In fact, for any settled 
tract. A Pueblo Indian is, therefore, a village Indian. 



4§ THE NORTH AMERICAN iNDtAM 

The Aztec Confederacy was formed by a union of the 
city of Mexico with two neighboring pueblos. It is cer- 
tain that the Aztecs had a number of pyramid-shaped 
temples in which they oft'ered human sacrifices. Ruins 
of temples and fort-like houses arc found not only through- 
out the republic of Mexico but in many places in Central 
America, and in Peru and neighboring regions of the south- 
ern continent. When the Spaniards came to America, the 
leading tribes, both in Mexico and Peru, were engaged in 
conquering all the Indians around them. What systems 
of government they would have built up without European 
interference we shall never know. 

The Mound Builders. — In addition to the ruins men- 
tioned others have been found east of the Rocky Moun- 
tains, especially in the valleys of the Ohio and the Mis- 
sissippi. These remains, however, are not the ruins of 
temples or of pueblos, but mounos varying greatly both 
in form and extent. No fewer than two thousand have 
been discovered and opened. From them articles by thou- 
sands have been taken. These include stone axes, stone 
hammers, stone spades; water jugs, tobacco pipes, and 
tools for spinning and weaving. 

Many mounds were used for burial purposes.^ A care- 
ful study of the contents of these great works seems to 
show that they were built not by a civilized race that has 
passed away but by just such people as the first white 
settlers found in America. In other words, there was no 
distinct race of mound builders. 

Physical and Other Characteristics. — Though among 
the Indians there were diffeuences in color, size, language, 
and customs, they all had coarse, straight, black hair, 
dark eyes, copper-colored complexions, high cheek bones, 

1 Some mounds are thought to have been inteuded for observation and 
some for defense. 



CHARACTERISTICS; ORIGIN; RELIGION 49 

and angular, beardless faces (picture on page 416). In size 
many were equal to the average white man. The differ- 
ences in language were great. As to civilization, some 
Indians, as those of Mexico and Peru, had attained to the 
upper stages of barbarism, that is, they would be called 
semi-civilized; others, like those of California, were among 
the lowest of the human race. Some tribes wandered about 
and were to be found wherever fish was plentiful or game 
abundant. 

So sparsely settled were the immense continents of 
America, when discovered, that within the limits of what 
is now the United States the entire population is believed 
not to have greatly exceeded 300,000 Their descendants, 
who are mostly beyond the Mississippi, are estimated at 
260,000. We shall see how, east of the Mississippi, they 
faded before the white man. 

Origin of the Indians. — When, how, or whence the 
Indians came to America we do not know. In times more 
recent, men from Asia have crossed Bering Strait on the 
ice to Alaska in pursuit of fur-bearing animals. Many 
centuries ago it would have been just as easy for Asiatics 
to have made the journey. In figure, features, and com- 
plexion as well as in civilization the Indian does not bear 
so close a resemblance to Europeans or Africans as he does 
to certain peoples in northeastern Asia. 

Religion. — The worship of ancestors was general among 
the Indians. But with this devotion to the dead was 
mixed up the worship of the lightning, the tempest, and 
other things. As the poet says, the poor Indian " sees 
God in clouds, or hears him in the wind." In his simple 
view almost everything in nature was possessed of a 
manitou or spirit. To this he prayed or sacrificed. The 
leaders in worship, of which dancing was an important 
part, were known as " medicine men." 



50 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN 

Domestic Animals. — Except a poor sort of dog, the 
Indian of North America had no domestic animals. Horses, 
cows, sheep, goats, poultry, and pigs he got later from the 
white man. Without these it was almost impossible for 
him to take the first steps out of barbarism. As wars 
were frequent, no great supply of food was likely to be 
stored against either a dry season or a severe winter. 
With fighting as one of his chief occupations the Indian 
was certain to become cruel. He showed the greatest 
ingenuity in torturing prisoners. 

Occupations. — When Europeans came to America, some 
of the tribes had already begun to cultivate the soil, but 

it is not to be 
supposed that 
iSiSS^i^S^^^^g when they be- 
came farmers 
they forgot the art, the pleasure, or the profit 
of hunting. In every stage of the Indian's 
progress this was one of his chief occupations. 
For success in it he relied upon a strong bow 
and flint-headed arrow, his stone tomahawk, 
and his ingenious traps. As he could not bring down 
distant game with a rifle of high power, it was necessary 
that he come close to bird and beast in order to dispatch 
them. This he was able to do by disguising himself in 
the skins of familiar animals and then creeping upon his 
prey. The drudgery of home and field was the lot of his 
squaw. 

Clothing. — In the Bahamas, Columbus found naked 
savages. Farther north the men wore a hunting shirt, 
leggings, moccasins, and a band of deerskin round the 
waist. Clothing varied not only with climate but with 
civilization. The women, who were often dressed like 
men, wore deerskin aprons and moccasins ornamented 




CLOTHING; FOOD; TRAVEL 51 

with shell beads or porcupine quills. In going forth to 
war the Indian tried to make himself look terrible to his 
enemy by painting upon his face spots or lines of red, blue, 
or yellow. 

Food. — The Indian got his food from the fields, the 
forests, and the streams around him. These yielded him 
corn, squashes, pumpkins, beans, berries, fruit, and maple 
sugar; deer meat or bear meat, wild pigeon, wild turkey, 
and a great variety of fish. 

The Indian could start a fire for cooking by rubbing a 
pointed stick against a piece of dry wood. His fish was 
soon broiled by holding it on a forked stick over glowing 
embers. Ground corn mixed with water he baked in the 
hot ashes. His vessels, made of wicker or other wood, 
could not be put upon a fire. Instead he put stones into 
a fire and when they were white hot, plunged them into 
a vessel filled with water. 

Travel. — Skin canoes were used by the western Indians. 
They were made by stretching skins over wooden frames. 
In the South and in the West Indies the natives used a 
dugout, made by shaping a tree trunk and then hollowing 
it. But by far the most useful boat contrived by Indian 
skill was the birch-bark canoe. In this frail craft the 
Indians traveled far. Past rapids, or from one stream 
to another, the canoe could be borne on the shoulders. 
Those stages of a journey over which the canoe had to be 
thus carried were called portages} 

Indian Trails. — On land, the Indians were forced to 
travel on foot. In the course of time, their feet would 
wear a narrow path or trail through the woods or across 
barren ground. All parts of the country were crossed by 
such trails. As long experience had taught the Indians 

1 Portage is derived from tLe French verb porter (por-ta), which means 
to carry or to bear. 




52 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN 

the easiest grades in traveling from place to place, in later 
times their paths have indicated to surveyors the natural 

routes for highways 
or for railways. 
For traveling over 
deep snow, the north- 
ern Indians invented 

SNOWSHOE 

the snowshoe, a won- 
derful contrivance for preventing the foot from sinking into 
the snow. 

Indian Warfare. — Disputes with Europeans resulted 
from the dishonesty of traders and from other causes. 
The white man was greedy, the Indian suspicious. It was 
the belief of the Indian that an injury done by any member 
of the white race gave him a right to be revenged upon any 
man, woman, or child of that race. In this state of feeling 
the settlers found it necessary to go armed, and at exposed 
places to build blockhouses in which, if necessary, all 
might take refuge. 

When the settlers began to cut down the forests, the 
Indians, in order to find new hunting grounds, went farther 
into the wilderness. In so doing they frequently tres- 
passed on the lands of other tribes. This often led to 
destructive wars among themselves. But long before the 
coming of Europeans there was savage warfare between 
the Indian nations. Whether against one another or 
against colonists the Indian did not fight in the open. 
From ambush he safely shot his enemy, mangled him with 
a tomahawk, and finished the work by scalping him, 

Indian Arts and Names. — Indians taught white men 
how to grow corn and how to grow and cure tobacco. It 
was from them that the white man learned also how to 
make sugar from the sap of the maple tree. 

Throughout America we find Indian names of moun- 



INDIAN NAMES 58 

tains, lakes, and streams; for example, Allegheny, Huron, 
Mississippi. Indian phrases have come into our language. 
" Indian summer " and " Indian file " are illustrations. 
The happy hunting ground, for the hereafter, buryiny the 
hatchet, to signify the making of peace, and similar expres- 
sions show the fanciful nature of Indian speech. From the 
same source many of our names of animals and plants are 
derived. 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — What parts of North and South America 
were settled when the Spaniards arrived in 1492? How are the 
Indians generally classified? Name the principal aboriginal nations. 
Describe their dwellings. What was the clan, and what the tribe? 

Where were the semi-civilized Indians found? Who were the 
Mound Builders? 

Describe the Indian in the matter of size, color, customs, language. 
Where are the aboriginal races of America believed to have come 
from? What is said of their religion? Of their occupations? Methods 
of travel? 

What did the white man learn from the Indian? Mention some 
names that are of Indian origin. 

References. — W. H. Holmes, Handbook of the Indians North of 
Mexico; H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States of North 
America; Livingston Farrand, Basis of American History. 



COLONIAL ERA 



CHAPTER V 



VIRGINIA 

The Two Virginia Companies. — The defeat of the great 
Armada (p. 44) was followed by a steady decline of Spanish 
power, and by renewed projects of English colonization.^ 

At length, in 1606, 




o c :e A N 



St:ALPOF MTT-ES 

6 100 255 iSo 



through Gosnold's in- 
fluence, King James I 
created a company with 
two branches, namely, 
the London branch and 
the Plym'outh branch. 
The London branch 
could make a settlement 
anywhere in the tract 
between 34° and 41" 
north latitude. It was 
to receive a grant of 
land fifty miles north 
and fifty miles south from its first settlement. In other 
words, it was given on the coast a front of one hundred 
miles; inland the grant was to extend the same distance. 

1 In 1602 Bartholomew Gosnold sailed directly across the Atlantic to 
Cape Cod, which he named. A colony under his leadership settled on 
Cuttyhunk, at the entrance to Buzzards Bay, on the south coast of what 
is now Massachusetts; but on the approach of winter they returned to 
England. 

54 



THE JAMESTOWN COLONY 55 

The Plymouth merchants were free to make their first 
settlement anywhere between 38° and 45°, and were also 
to have a block one hundred miles square. To prevent any 
conflict, it was provided that the company making the 
second settlement should locate at least one hundred miles 
from the colony first established. 

The Virginia charter was in many respects remarkable. 
It provided, for instance, that the English colonists and 
their descendants " shall have and enjoy all liberties, fran- 
chises, and immunities within any of our dominions, to all 
intents and purposes as if they had been abiding and born 
within this our realm of England or any other of our said 
dominions." ^ 

The Jamestown Colony. — As soon as the charter was 
granted. King James named the members of a council to 
govern Virginia. Arrangements were at once made by 
the London Company to send out the first settlers, who 
were to seek gold, and silver and to search for a northwest 
passage. In December, 1606, three vessels, carrying 120 
men, sailed from the Thames under Sir Christopher New- 
port. By April they were at the West Indies, and on May 
6, 1607, they saw the capes of Chesapeake Bay. They 
entered the bay and sailed about thirty miles up a fine 
river which, in honor of their king, they called the James. 
That night a sealed letter from him was opened and read; 
also the names were made known of those who were to 
rule on land. There were likewise instructions from the 
Virginia Council. Unfortunately for the settlers this ad- 
vice was soon forgotten. Though warned against it, they 
selected for their place of settlement a low and unhealth- 
ful peninsula, which at first was called James Fort, but 
which later came to be known as Jamestown. 

1 This clause had been a provision of the patents of both Gilbert and 
Raleigh. 



56 



VIRGINIA 



Captain Newport returned to England, gathered sup- 
plies, found more settlers, and was again at Jamestown 
in January, 1608. He then learned that fever, hunger, 
and Indian arrows had swept off more than half of those 
he had first brought out. 

The First President. — Edward Maria Wingfield, the 
first president of the Virginia council, was the only one 
of tlie patentees who came with the colonists. Ratcliffe, 

Martin, and Smith 
removed Wingfield 
not only from the 
presidency but from 
the council. In the 
circumstances his 
overthrow was easy. 
It was known or sus- 
pected that he was a 
Catholic. It was 
charged that he was 
an atheist, that he 
had brought no Bible 
with him, and that 
he had conspired with 
the Spaniards to destroy Virginia. Even if he had not 
been dealing with hungry men his lot would have been 
hard, for in that age many well-fed people were willing to 
believe the wildest tales when told of Catholics. 

Captain John Smith. — For about three hundred years 
Captain John Smith was })elieved to have been the ablest 
and the most useful of the Jamestown settlers. As a 
matter of fact, he was a mere adventurer responsible for 
much of the trouble among the first settlers in Virginia. 
His account is made up of praise of himself and unfair 
criticism of his fellows. Perhaps it was no misfortune to 




ii^ULt' 



ARREST OF WINGFIELD, FIRST PRESIDKNT 
OF JAMESTOWN 



THE STARVING TIME 



57 



t<^ ^. 







o 



Jamestown when an injury forced him to return to Eng- 
hmd for medical treatment.* Pic was never again employed 
by the Virginia Company. 

The Starving Time. — In 1()()9 another charter was 
granted, giving Virginia much hirger boundaries; and 500 
new settlers were sent 
to Jamestown. A lead- 
ing historian says that 
they were " a worthless 
set picked up in the 
streets of London or 
taken from the jails, 
and utterly unfit to 

' When provisions were 
scarce at Jamestown, Smith 
entered the country of the In- 
dians. For beads, other trin- 
kets, and knives he was able 
to get a supply of much needed 
corn. On an exploring trip he 
was captured by a party of na- 
tives, who brought him liefore 
their great chief Powhatan'. 
In his second account of the 
Virginia settlement, Smith says 
that he had been condemned 
to die and that the club of a 
warrior was already raised to 
brain him, when the chief's 
daughter, Pocahontas, threw 
herself upon Smith to shield 
him from the intended blow, 
and saved his life. 

In his first account of the Virginia settlement Smith did not mention 
this interesting incident. Some historians believe that this was because it 
had never really happened. Pocahontas, who often visited Jamestown, 
afterward married .John Rolfe, one of the planters, and with him w(»nt to 
England, where she died. 

' Extending four hundred miles along the coast, and thence " west and 
northwest " from sea to sea. 



SCALE OF MILES 



C Hatteras 




VIRGINIA BY THE CHARTER OF 1609'' 



58 VIRGINIA 

become the founders of a state in the New World." ^ At 
the end of six months only sixty of this band were alive. 
Nevertheless, others continued to come, and for several 
years the awful tragedy went on. The winter of 1609-1610 
was long remembered as " the starving time." The fam- 
ished and fever-stricken survivors at length decided to 
leave the horrible place and had actually sailed down the 
James River when, in June, 1610, they met Lord Dela- 
ware with ships, supplies, and more men from England. 
They at once returned to their forsaken hovels. After 
Lord Delaware returned to England, Sir Thomas Dale 
acted as governor. He was followed by Sir Thomas Gates, 
who brought 300 emigrants and removed most of the 
settlers from Jamestown to a more healthful location. 

Dale's Laws. — During this period there was adopted 
a set of regulations known as Dale's Laws, though the 
harsh governor did not prepare them. It is easy to per- 
ceive in this code a spirit of religious intolerance. One 
object was to exclude Catholics from the colony. Among 
other things it was provided that all newly landed emigrants 
should visit the minister and satisfy him of the correct- 
ness of their religious opinions or receive a daily flogging 
until they did so.^ All were required to be present each 
day at religious service. 

Private Property. — When the first settlers came to Vir- 
ginia, they were merely servants of the Company. No 
man owned any land, or even any farming implements. 
All worked upon the land of the Company, and what was 
raised by their united labor was put into a common store- 
house. The idle and the infirm received, no doubt, as 
great a share as the strong and industrious. When Gov- 

1 McMaster. Later, however, there arrived many knights and nobles 
of every rank. 

* Channing, A History of the United Slates, I, 181-183. 



THE FIRST AMERICAN LEGISLATURE 59 

ernor Dale came, all were still required to work for the 
Company, but he allowed them the privilege of working 
also for themselves on a few acres. 

Prosperity came only with the cultivation of tobacco. 
At that time large quantities were used in England, but all 
of it was of Spanish production. This was changed by 
John Rolfe, the husband of the Indian girl Pocohontas. 
In some way he had learned how to prepare the plant for 
the European market, and in 1616 a shipment from his 
plantation brought a good price in London. Thereafter 
the early history of Virginia was closely bound up with the 
growing of tobacco. Indeed, tobacco was used as the 
actual money of the colony. 

The First American Legislature. — In 1619, Governor 
George Yeardley arrived in Jamestown. There were then 
about 4000 inhabitants hving in eleven ''boroughs" or 
settlements; therefore a new system of government was 
needed. Acting under the advice of the Company, the 
governor ordered each settlement to elect two representa- 
tives or burgesses to an assembl}^ On July 30, 1619, they 
met in the Uttle wooden church at Jamestown. At this 
first session of the House of Burgesses, as the assembly was 
called. Dale's cruel laws were either modified or over- 
looked. This was the beginning of self-government in 
America, 

Introduction of Negro Slavery. — In 1619 the captain of 
a vessel, said to have been a Dutch man-of-war, sailed up 
the James River and in exchange for provisions sold twenty 
negroes to the planters. Their labor was found to be very 
profitable in the cultivation of tobacco. As its production 
increased, slavery grew and in time extended to all the 
English colonies. 

The Coming of Women. — As early as the year 1608 
there were a few women in the colony and some mar- 



60 



VIRGINIA 



riages are mentioned. Still a great many of the settlers 
were Ijachelors, and to bind them more closely to Virginia 
the Company shrewdly decided to send over some maidens 
for wives. In 1619 about ninety young women of good 

character arrived at 
y/^JM 'K. f(XA'r^. Jamestown. Theex- 

i?^V ^ pense of bringing 

them over was equal- 
ly divided. The 
planter who took a 
wife paid in tobacco 
currency the charges 
against her. The 
result of this experi- 
ment, which was re- 
peated a few years 
later, was just what 
the Company had 
expected. At first 
there was noticeable 
an improvement in 
social life. Later it 
was seen that men 
became more indus- 
trious, for they had 
wives and children 
to work for. They 
likewise became more contented and most of them soon 
ceased to think of returning to England. 

Indian Massacre. — The Indians greeted the first set- 
tlers with a shower of arrows; but in time relations with 
them became somewhat cordial. Powhatan, chief of the 
James River Indians, showed friendship for John Smith. 
As the cultivation of tobacco continued, it was natural 




SLAVE CULTIVATING TOBACCO 



VIRGINIA A ROYAL PROVINCE 61 

for the settlers to take up the rich lands along the James. 
Next they cut down some of the forests and in a little 
while seized the corn fields of the natives. This injury 
was resented by the Indians. Powhatan had died in 1619. 
His brother, who succeeded him, was no friend of the 
whites. A quarrel between a settler and a native gave a 
pretense for ho,stilities. The Indians planned the com- 
plete destruction of the English, and might have met with 
success, but for the warning of a native convert. The 
attack began March 22, 1622, while the people were at 
work in the fields. About one tenth of the entire popu- 
lation, 347 men, women, and children, were slaughtered 
in a single day. 

Notwithstanding this awful calamity the planters re- 
sumed their work and showed no sign of their purpose to 
punish the savages. Spring came and went, and the length 
of a long summer passed before they took the field against 
the enemy. Then they attacked the Indians with sudden 
fury, killed many, dispersed others in the forests, and 
destroyed both the villages of the natives and their food 
supply for the winter. These pitiless measures made 
peace for more than twenty years. In 1644 the same 
chief led another attack. At that time he was killed, 
while most of his followers were scattered forever. 

Virginia a Royal Province. — In its last years the Vir- 
ginia Company was managed by men of ability. Never- 
theless, before the great Indian massacre there were in the 
colony only 1200 Englishmen. During three years nearly 
3000 persons had died of starvation. This was a ground 
for criticism of the Company. Their establishment of 
self-government, too, was an offense that King James 
would not overlook. In 1623 he demanded the surrender 
of their charter, which was afterward annulled. From 
the year, 1624 Virginia was a royal province ruled by gov- 



62 



VIRGINIA 



ernors sent out by the King, but the people were allowed 
to retain the House of Burgesses. 

An Unpopular Royal Governor. — As the warriors of 
1644 had forgotten their terrible punishment for the mas- 
sacre of 1622, so their descendants, in 1675, did not re- 
member the rough treatment of 1644; therefore the tribes 

on the frontier grew 
troublesome. It is said 
that Berkeley, the gov- 
ernor appointed by King 
Charles II,i was himself 
a trader with the In- 
dians, and did little to 
protect the settlers. 
They decided, there- 
fore, to take measures 
for their own defense. 
Bacon's Rebellion. — 
Nathaniel Bacon made 
himself a leader of the 
planters, raised troops, 
and marched against the 
Indians, whom he pun- 
ished. Berkeley pro- 
claimed him a traitor 
for raising an army without authority. Seeing that his 
life was forfeited. Bacon used his troops against the 
governor, whom he defeated and drove from Jamestown, 

' King James I died in 1625 and was succeeded by his son Charles I, 
who quarreled with the English Parliament. In the civil war that fol- 
lowed, Parliament was victorious. Charles I was tried for treason, and 
beheaded (1649). For many years England was a kind of republic, under 
the control of Cromwell. Soon after Cromwell's death, however, the throne 
was given back to Charles II, the oldest son of Charles I. This event, which 
took place in 1660, was called the "Restoration." 




THE OLD TOWER AT JAMESTOWN 
(The church itself was rebuilt in 1907) 



BACON'S REBELLION 63 

and lest the place should again fall into the hands of 
this official it was burned. In the midst of his success 
Bacon fell sick and died. Without a commander his men 
were easily dispersed. BeiKeley then put thirty of them 
to death. This harsh treatment of Bacon's followers drew 
from King Charles II the exclamation, " The old fool has 
put to death more people in that naked country than I 
did here for the murder of my father!'' Berkeley was 
recalled. 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — What kind of company was chartered in 
April, 1606, by King James I? What rights accompanied an EngUsh 
colonist when he settled in America? Who was Edward Maria 
Wingfield? What is said of Captain John Smith? Relate the story 
of Pocahontas. When was the " starving time " in Virginia? How 
did the principle of private property affect the settlement? 

How was the House of Burgesses made up, and what is its great 
importance in American history? 

When and in what manner was negro slavery introduced into 
Virginia? Describe the relations of the English and Indians. What 
ground of complaint had the natives? When was Virginia made a 
royal province? Give an account of Bacon's Rebellion. 

References. — Channing, A History of the United States, VoL I; 
John Esten Cooke, Virginia (American Commonwealths); Alexander 
Brown, The Genesis of the United States; Thwaites, The Colonies 
(Epochs of American History, Vol. I.); John A. Doyle, The English 
Colonists in America, Vol. I. 



CHAPTER VI 
THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 

The success of the London Company has been told in 
the chapter on Virginia. As early as 1607 the Plymouth 
Company attempted unsuccessfully to found a colony at 
the mouth of the Kennebec. In 1G20 the merchant ad- 
venturers of Plymouth were reorganized into a new com- 
pany known as the Council for New England, which was 
granted an immense tract of land. The first English 
colony on the New England coast, however, was planted 
not by men interested in exploration or in commerce, but 
by men seeking an asylum in which they could worship 
God in their own way. 

The Pilgrims. — By the close of Elizabeth's reign, 1603, 
the religious faith of a great majority of the English people 
was very different from the religion of her grandfather, 
Henrj^ VII. Yet there were within the Estaljlished Church 
of England many who thought still other changes should 
be made. At the coming of King James I they had grown 
so numerous that they had a majority of members in the 
House of Commons. These radicals in religion were known 
as Puritans. The Pilgrims or Separatists had gone even 
farther than the Puritans, for they had left the national 
church. When James came to the throne, in 1603, the 
Separatists had been reduced by persecution to the single 
congregation at Gainsborough, together with a few mem- 
bers of the same sect at the near-by hamlet of Scrooby. 
It is in the fortunes of these persecuted people that we are 
interested. 

64 



THE PILGRIMS OR SEPARATISTS 



65 



The Separatists in Holland. — In 1608 the Separatists of 
Scrooby made their way to Amsterdam, in Holland. After 
living there for a year they removed to Leyden (li'den), 
where they prospered because of their honesty, intelli- 
gence, and industry. Though they could not complain 
of their treatment by the Dutch, they resolved to leave 
Leyden. Their sons had begun to enlist in the army and 
navy of Holland; they were beginning to speak the Dutch 
language, and, it was feared, they might imitate the Dutch 
in their observance of the Sabbath. In a word, they 
would melt into the population around them, and in a 
little while cease to be Englishmen. Besides, Spain was 
beginning a war, and Leyden might soon be attacked. 
These were the 
influences that 
turned the Pil- 
grims' thoughts 
to America. 

The Plymouth 
Colony 

Voyage of the 
Mayflower. — 

Late in July, 
1620, the Sepa- ^ 
r a t i s t s had ^ 
nearly co m- 
pleted their 

preparations for going to America. The Speedivell was to 
take tlip company to Southampton and thence accompany 
the Mayflower across the Atlantic. Delays wasted the 
precious summer months, and it was not till Se]')tember 6, 
1620, that the Mayflower took her departure alone, carry- 
ing 102 settlers. A birth and a death were the chief events 




THE MAYFLOWER 



66 THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 

of a rough voyage. On November 20 land was seen. 
Weeks were spent in exploring the coast to find a suitable 
location for a settlement, and on December 21 the Pilgrims 
landed on Plymouth Pock.^ 

The Mayflower Compact. — It should be remembered 
that the company left England with the idea of settling 
somewhere in the territory of the Virginia Company, but 
the captain of the Mayflower took them much farther to 
the north. Before allowing anyone to go ashore the leaders 
required all to meet in the cabin of the Mayflower, where 
there was prepared an agreement, which is believed to 
have been signed by every adult male. Its chief pro- 
visions were the following: 

1. They declared themselves the loyal subjects of King 
James. 

2. The voyage, undertaken for the glory of God, the 
advancement of the Christian faith and the honor of their 
king and country, was for the j^urpose of planting a colony 
in the northern parts of Virginia. The better to promote 
these objects they combined themselves into a corporation. 

3. By this agreement it was possible to make from time 
to time such just and equal laws as should be thought most 
suitable for the general good of the colony. 

4. To the laws thus made they promised obedience. 
Immediately after signing the compact Mr. John Carver 

was chosen governor. For many years the laws were 
passed, and public questions settled, by the whole adult 
population in town meeting. 

The "Wild New England Shore." — After landing at 
Plymouth, the able-bodied men began to build houses. 
During January and February this work advanced slowly. 
Lack of medicine, of proper shelter, and even of food 

' In a map drawn by Captain John Smith, who had explored that coast 
Jong before, the place was called Plymouth, 



PLYMOUTH 67 

told severely upon the health of the laborers. At one 
time only seven well men could be found in the settlement. 
Among these were Elder Brewster and Captain Miles 
Standish, two of the most celebrated men in the colony. 
Governor Carver died early in April and was followed in 
office by William Bradford, who at different times for more 
than thirty years ably managed the affairs of the settle- 
ment. At last the cheerful days of spring brought relief 
to the stricken people, but by that time half their number 
had died. 

Relations with the Indians. — Relations with the Indi- 
ans were generally friendly. The natives were paid for 
both land and corn. In March, 1621, an Indian named 
Sam'oset appeared in their midst and welcomed them in 
the English tongue. He told them of Tisquantum 
(Squanto), who had visited England in one of the fishing 
vessels. Together they used their influence to establish 
friendly relations with Mas'sasoit, chief of the Wampano'- 
ags. The treaty made with the chief Massasoit was faith- 
fully kept for more than fifty years. Squanto showed the 
colonists where game was most abundant and where the 
best fish could be taken; also how to fertilize their corn- 
hills. They greatly feared the loss of their seed corn, but 
he assured them that it was safe to plant when the leaves 
of the oak became as large as a mouse's ear. 

The First Thanksgiving Day. — After the severe winter 
had passed, sickness became less frequent and by autumn 
good health blessed the settlement. The crops had been 
very satisfactory; the houses were in good condition; 
materials had been collected for other buildings, and a 
great quantity of furs was stored for shipment to England. 
Fish abounded in the bay and sea fowl along the shore. 
Both deer and wild turkeys were plentiful in the forests. 
Now that their harvest was gathered the Pilgrims decided 



68 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 



to have a period of recreation and thanksgiving. An in- 
vitation was sent to Massasoit, who attended with ninety 
of his people. The Indians indulged in the amusements 




THE FIRST THANKSGIVING DINNER 



of their race, while the English, under Captain Miles 
Standish, performed a military drill for the entertainment 
of their guests. Thus, in the autumn of 1621, was begun 
the great New England festival of Thanksgiving. 

Common Property Abolished. — For the first seven 
years there was no private ownership of land in Plymouth. 
As early as 1623, however, there was given to each house- 



Massachusetts founded 69 

hold a small parcel of land, not as a permanent possession 
but merely for present use. This change not only en- 
couraged industry among the men but had the effect of 
gaining them the assistance of the women and children. 
The little colony paid off its debts, and grew slowly and 
steadily. A patent for a large tract was obtained from the 
Council for New England (map, page 79), and the colony 
gave or sold land to the settlers. 

Massachusetts 

The Coming of the Puritans. — King Charles I was de- 
termined to suppress the Puritans, who wished to make 
reforms in the Church of England. Despairing of any 
improvement in their condition at home, many of the 
Puritans resolved to go to America. In 1628 some mer- 
chants and country gentlemen formed the Massachusetts 
Bay Company. It bought from the Council for New- 
England a tract of land between points three miles south 
of "any or every part " of the Charles River, and three 
miles north of " any or every part " of the Merrimac 
River, and extending westward to the Pacific Ocean. In 
June, 1628, the company sent out a small party of emi- 
grants under John Endicott, who conducted them to 
Naum'keag, where a few English were already living. At 
first these questioned the rights of the newcomers, but 
before long the dispute was arranged to the satisfaction 
of both parties. In memory of this event Endicott changed 
the name of the place to Salem, the Hebrew word for 
peaceful. 

The Massachusetts Charter. — The men of the Massa- 
chusetts Bay Company soon secured from King Charles I 
a charter making them a corporation known as the " Gov- 
ernor and Company of Massachusetts Ba}^ in New Eng- 
land." This charter, which was very liberal, must have 



70 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 



surprised the Puritans. It enabled the company to make 
all laws necessary for the government of the colony, pro- 
vided they were not contrary to the laws of England. 
Moreover, it confirmed the generous grant of land given 
by the Council for New England. 

Twelve of the most influential members of the company 
made a written agreement binding themselves to emigrate 
with their famihes to New England if they could take 
the charter with them and transfer the meeting place of 
the Company from England to the colony. When it was 
found that this could lawfully be done, the charter was 
turned over to those who intended to emigrate, and John 
Winthrop was elected governor. 




STREET IN SALEM IN THE EARLY DAYS 



Boston Settled. — In June, 1630, a fleet of eleven ships 
brought nearly 1000 Puritans to Salem harbor. Gloomy 
tidings greeted Winthrop. During the preceding winter 
eighty of the colonists had died, and among the survivors 
there still was much sickness. There was also a great 
scarcity of food. The immigrants began to lay out new 



GOVERNMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS 71 

towns, and before winter there were settlements at Boston, 
Charlestown, and several other places not far away. By 
the close of the year 1630 no fewer than 2000 Puritans had 
come to Massachusetts Bay. Thus was begun the largest 
colony in New England. 

Union of Church and State. — Until the Puritans came 
to America they were members of the Church of England. 
Even after their arrival they still pretended to be loyal to 
that church. When some of the returning settlers accused 
them of being Separatists, they described the charges as 
being " false and scandalous." Nevertheless, they were 
quietly turning their backs on the church which one of 
their leaders termed "our dear mother." In Salem was 
founded the first Congregational church. 

In October, 1630, the first " General Court " of the 
Massachusetts Bay Company was held in Boston. Its 
membership included the governor, deputy governor, eight 
assistants, and one or two others. It was settled that the 
"freemen," or members of the company, were to choose 
the assistants, who in turn were to choose the governor 
and his deputy. The principal settlers were admitted to 
the company as "freemen." During 1631, 1632, and 
1633, Winthrop was chosen governor. After an interval 
he was again elected. 

Though the great Puritan migration from England was 
caused by oppression, the Puritans themselves were in- 
tolerant and began early to persecute. The "freemen," 
indeed, could take part in the choice of officials, but none 
were admitted as freemen unless they were members of 
some Puritan church. In other words, citizenship was 
based upon church membership. The Bible was the only 
law book recognized by the court of assistants, and of 
this the ministers were thought the best interpreters. In 
England aU freeholders, whether they were members of 



72 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 



the Established Church or were not, had the right to vote, 
whereas in the Massachusetts Bay colony only members 
of the Congregational churches possessed that right. 

Education in Massachusetts. — From the beginning the 
Puritans were interested in the elements of learning. For 

a time their system of 
education was one of 
private instruction. 
However, they soon es- 
tablished the Boston 
Latin School, and in 
1636 the General Court 
voted £400 toward "a 
schoole or Colledge "^ 
to be built at Newtown. 
In 1638 John Harvard, 
a young clergyman, died 
and, in addition to his 
library, left "one half 
his estate, it being in all 
about £700, for the 
erecting of the College."^ 
Because of this generous 
gift the General Court 
gave his name to the 
institution. Newtown, 
the seat of the college, 
was afterward called Cambridge, to keep fresh in the minds 
of the Puritan leaders the memories of the English college 
at which many of them had been educated. 

Persecution of Quakers. — Massachusetts had not out- 
grown its intolerance in 1656, when there arrived a number 
of Friends or Quakers, whose teachings offended the Puri- 

1 In the seventeenth century spelling varied greatly. 




STATUE OF JOHN HARVARD AT 
CAMBRIDGE, MASS. 



MASSACHUSETTS; OONNECTICUT 73 

tans. Among other opinions they held that war is sinful, 
that all religious ceremonies are useless or wrong, and that 
the state has no right to control religion. The first Quak- 
ers were banished and warned not to return under penalty 
of death. In 1659 a Quaker named Robinson went to 
Boston, Three others followed him, among them a woman, 
Mary Dyer. Before 1G61 all had been hanged on the 
Common. This excess of intolerance seems to have some- 
what softened opinion among the stern Puritans; at any 
rate, no more Quakers were put to death. 

The Salem Witchcraft. — In 1692 the town of Salem, 
Massachusetts, was terror stricken by fear of witches. 
Some old or deformed women were accused of being witches, 
whereupon the governor set up a court for their trial. The 
daughter and the niece of a Salem minister blamed their 
Indian servant for some pretended affliction, and they 
were believed. The craze spread and for a while the new 
court was busy. These and other girls, who pretended 
that they had been bewitched, gravely told the judges 
strange stories. More than one witness claimed that she 
had been dragged from her bed, lifted into the air and, 
like the fairy prince on his enchanted horse, hurried for 
miles over the tree tops. Before the delusion had passed 
away nineteen innocent persons had been tried and hanged 
as witches and one had been pressed to death with heavy 
weights. In Europe as well as in America many com- 
munities then believed in witchcraft. 

Connecticut 

Beginnings of Connecticut. — In 1633 the English from 
Plymouth erected a station at Windsor. Later other set- 
tlers entered the Connecticut Valley. In the Massachu- 
setts Bay colony many were dissatisfied with the political 
system which permitted only members of the Congrega- 



74 THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 

tional churches to vote or to hold office. Perhaps there 
was also a feeling that land was more plentiful in the west- 
ern wilderness. At any rate, in 1635 a few pioneers re- 
moved to Windsor and at once took the management of 
its affairs into their own hands. Others went still farther 
and began a settlement at Wethersfield. In 1636 the 
Newtown congregation, guided by its pastor, Rev. Thomas 
Hooker, made its way across the untraveled country to 
the Connecticut Valley and founded Hartford. 

For a few years these settlements were regarded as part 
of Massachusetts. In 1639, Hartford, Windsor, and 
Wethersfield united to form a little repubhc and made the 
" Fundamental Orders of Connecticut." This was the first 
written constitution prepared in America. The union of 
towns, which came to be known as Connecticut, marks the 
beginning of democratic government in our country.^ 

New Haven Colony. — In 1638 Reverend John Daven- 
port and others took up their residence near the yuorthern 
shore of Long Island Sound. Their settlement they called 
New Haven. Being without a charter, they bought from 
the Indians a right to the soil. Other towns founded along 
the shore soon afterwards formed a union with New Haven. 
This colony protected the enemies of Charles II, who, as a 
punishment, wiped it off the map by including it in the 
limits of a charter he granted to Connecticut in 1662. 

1 To Lord Say-and-Sele, Lord Brooke, and others the President of the 
Council for New England had granted a great tract west of the Narragan- 
sett River, and far enough to the northward to include the townships that 
were collectively called Connecticut. This extended westward to the 
South Sea. In the autumn of 1635 John Winthrop, Jr., a son of Governor 
Winthrop of Massachusetts, came from England with a commission as 
governor of the "river Connecticut in New England." He promptly built 
at the mouth of the Connecticut River a fort which, in honor of the prin- 
cipal grantees, he called Saybrook. This was in the nick of time, for it 
was hardly finished when a Dutch vessel from New Amsterdam arrived 
in the river. Finding the English in possession, the Dutch sailed home. 



WAR WITH THE PEQUOTS 75 

Under that charter Connecticut claimed not only the 
land now in the state, but also a tract extending westward 
to the Pacific. So satisfactory were the provisions of this 
charter that it was kept in force until 1819. 

War with the Pequots. — The settlers who went into 
the Connecticut Valley did not go singly, but by dozens, 
by scores, and even by congregations. Naturally the pres- 
ence of white men in large numbers alarmed the natives, 
especially the Pequots, the leading tribe in Connecticut. 
Fearing an attack by the Narragansetts, the Pequots had 
recently sought an alliance with the Massachusetts colony. 
They agreed to surrender the murderers of some white 
men and to pay tribute; but afterwards refused to do so. 
Therefore, in 1636, a military force under John Endicott 
entered their country, seized some corn, and burned several 
wigwams. The commander at Saybrook fort and the 
authorities of Plymouth condemned the action of Massa- 
chusetts, for they knew that the Indians would soon be 
upon the Connecticut settlers, who were innocent. 

Before commencing hostilities the Pequots sent messen- 
gers to make peace with the Narragansetts, and tried to 
persuade them to make war on the English. There can 
be little doubt that they would have done so but for the 
influence of Roger Williams, who persuaded the Narra- 
gansetts to remain neutral. 

In the spring of 1637 the Pequots began the war. By 
May thirty settlers had been killed. Without waiting for 
the people of Massachusetts, whose conduct had caused 
the war, Connecticut raised a company of ninety men 
and put them under the command of Captain John Mason. 
He was joined by Mohegans, Narragansetts, and a few 
men from Massachusetts. The Pequots were found in a 
fort, which they had built in a swamp on the Mystic River, 
near the southeast corner of Connecticut. The English 



76 



THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 



surprised them, shot down those who tried to escape, and 
threw firebrands among the wigwams. In the flames men, 
women, and children, about 400 in all, were burned to 




ATTACK ON THE PEQUOT FORT 

death. Attacked by whites and Indians, the remnant of 
the tribe made their last stand in a swamp near New 
Haven. There 300 more were either captured or put to 
death. Their chief, Sas'sacus, took refuge among Mohawks, 
who cut off his head. As a separate people the Pequots 
had ceased to exist. 

Rhode Island 

The Teachings of Roger "Williams. — Roger Williams, 

for several years the minister at Salem, Massachusetts, was 
the son of a London merchant and a graduate of Cam- 



PROVIDENCE SETTLED 



77 



bridge University. In a pamphlet which he wrote, he 
denied the vahdity of land titles received from the govern- 
ment of Massachusetts. He taught that the soil belonged 
to the Indians and could be obtained from them only by 
purchase. He also questioned the right of the magistrates 
to punish for Sabbath breaking. For these and similar 
opinions it was de- 



cided to 
back to 
Williams, 
aware of 
pose, left 



send him 
England, 
who was 
this pur- 
Salem in 




midwinter and made 
his way through the 
wilderness to the 
wigwam of Massa- 
soit, whose friend- 
ship he had gained. 
Providence Set- 
tled (1636.) — As the 
Plymouth officials 
did not wish to 
offend the Massa- 
chusetts colony, 
they suggested that he remove a little farther off. In 1636, 
with five companions, he settled at a place which he called 
Providence. The subject of government ought not to have 
been a troublesome one in so small a hamlet, but soon 
there was discord. In securing land from the Indians, 
Williams took the tract in his own name and not for him- 
self and his associates. His failure to include his friends 
in the ownership caused so much trouble that he was 
finally compelled to give up most of the land. These 
facts seem to prove that, at least in the beginning, he had 



ROGER WILLIAMS ESCAPES TO THE INDIANS 



78 THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 

no purpose to found a state, and further that his friends 
were less interested in problems of government and religion 
than in the more practical matter of getting homes and 
farms. 

Government of Providence. — In a short time Williams 
was joined by other members of his Salem congregation. 
The dozen householders who formed the beginnings of the 
Providence colony had no charter from the king; nor had 
they any grant from the Council fo.r New England. In 
this situation they agreed, in 1640, upon a democratic 
form of government. 

Mrs. Anne Hutchinson; Rhode Island. — In the ve^-y 
month that Williams founded the settlement at Providence, 
Mrs. Anne Hutchinson arrived in Boston. Because of her 
kindness she soon won some popularity. From being a 
critic she became a teacher. She held that the divine 
spirit dwells in every true believer. The ministers regarded 
this as a claim to inspiration, threatening an end to aU 
church discipline. After a bitter struggle the government 
triumphed over the friends of Mrs. Hutchinson, and in 
1638 she was banished from the colony. She then joined 
WilUams at Providence, and with her husband and friends 
made a settlement at Portsmouth, on the island now called 
Rhode Island. 

The Charters of Rhode Island. — Within a few years 
there were four little colonies in the region of Narragansett 
Bay. The settlers had no title to the land which they 
claimed except that of occupation and of purchase from 
the natives. They were merely squatters and at any 
moment might be turned out by some favorite of the king 
or of Parliament. To prevent any such occurrence Wil- 
liams went to England and in 1643 got from Parliament a 
patent of incorporation. This empowered the people of 
Providence and the Rhode Island settlements to govern 



HHODE ISLAND 



79 



themselves, as well as new settlers coming into the colonies, 
by such a form of civil government as the majority should 
deem suitable to their condition. 

In 1663 WilUams secured from lung Charles II a charter 
for Rhode Island and Prov- 
i d e n c e Plantations, the 
name by which for genera- 
tions his colony continued 
to be known. 

Religious Toleration. — 
Rhode Island admitted 
settlers of all denomina- 




THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 



tions; but it was not the first colony to do so. As we 
shall see in a later chapter, the Maryland colony, founded 
by the Calverts, who were Catholics, was the first to prac- 
tice religious toleration. Roger Williams, the founder of 



80 THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 

Rhode Island, is to be classed with George and Cecil Calvert, 
his predecessors in the field of religious freedom/ and with 
William Penn, the Quaker, his worthy successor in the fol- 
lowing generation. 

New Hampshire 

In 1622 Sir Ferdinando Gorges and John Mason re- 
ceived from the Council for New England a grant of land 
between the Merrimac and the Kennebec rivers and from 
the Atlantic to the St. Lawrence. Next year they made 
two settlements, at Dover and Piscataqua (Portsmouth). 
Agriculture being neglected for years, these colonies dragged 
out a feeble existence. The proprietors later divided their 
territory. 

In 1629, accordingly, Captain Mason received from the 
Council for New England a new grant for the tract between 
the Merrimac and Piscataqua rivers. This region* was 
named New Hampshire in honor of the county of Hamp- 
shire, England, of which Mason had been lord lieutenant. 
Massachusetts also claimed this territory, and in 1636 built 
a house in the marshes midway between the Merrimac and 
the Piscataqua. She strengthened her claim in 1641 by 
settling at Hampton a party of emigrants from England. 
The people of Dover, who were Puritans, asked to be joined 
to Massachusetts. The Piscataqua settlers being members 
of the Church of England opposed this union, but because 
of conditions were forced to submit. In 1641 the New 
Hampshire settlements were united with Massachusetts, 
but in 1679 they were made a separate royal province. 

1 Though a formal act of religious toleration was passed in Rhode Is- 
land two years before a similar law was passed by the assembly of Mary- 
land, yet in Calvert's colony religious freedom was established from the firsl 
(1634). 

- Formerly known as Laconia. 



NEW HAMPSHIRE; MAINE 81 

Maine 

The first settlements by white men in Maine were made 
by CathoHc Frenchmen, but they were not permanent.^ 

When Mason took New Hampshire (1629), Gorges re- 
ceived the territory between the Piscataqua and the Ken- 
nebec. ^ This was called Maine, and in later times extended 
as far as the river St. Croix. Stations for fishing and fur 
trading were made at Saco and on Monhegan Island as 
early as 1623. Other settlements followed, including a 
trading post of the Plymouth colony, on the Kennebec. 

In 1652 the Massachusetts General Court appointed 
surveyors, who traced the course of the Merrimac as far 
as the parallel of 43° 40' 12". Within a few years com- 
missioners for that colony received the submission of the 
people of the different settlements in Maine. The heirs 
of Gorges were left in control of only three towns, and 
at last in 1677 Massachusetts bought their claims for£l250.^ 

1 As we have seen (page 38), the French during 1604 attempted a 
settlement on St. Croix Island, also called De Monts or Neutral Island, in 
eastern Maine. A chapel built by them was attended by Reverend Nicholas 
Aubry and a companion. This was without doubt the first place of Chris- 
tian worship in the present state of Maine. In later years other attempts 
at missionary work were made, but failed because of the hostility of mer- 
chants or of proprietors. Finally, in 1613 a station called Saint Saveur 
(Holy Savior) was established on Mount Desert Island by several priests 
and others. After a few months it was seized by Samuel Argall, of Vir- 
ginia. Brother du Thet (ta) was killed during the attack. Father Masse 
and fourteen Frenchmen were put adrift in an open boat, while Fathers 
Biard (be-ar') and Quentin (kahn-tan') were carried to Virginia, where 
Governor Dale threatened them with death. Instead they were to be 
carried back by Argall, who afterward destroyed Saint Saveur; also the 
struggling post on St. Croix Island, and the mission at Port Royal. The 
English vessel carrying the priests was forced by storms across the Atlantic 
as far as the Azores, whence they sailed for England and at last arrived in 
France. The fourteen Frenchmen in the open boat were, after much ex- 
po.sure, picked up by French vessels. 

2 In 1639 King Charles I granted Gorges a royal charter confirming his 
possession of this domain. 

' Maine remained a part of Massachusetts until 1820, when it was made 
a separate state. 



82 THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 

New England 

The United Colonies of New England. — In 1643 Mas- 
sachusetts Bay, Plymouth, New Haven, and Connecticut 
entered into a union to protect themselves from the Indi- 
ans, who were all around them, from the Dutch, who were 
making visits to the valley of the Connecticut, and from 
the French, who were settUng in Canada. Though this 
union, the first made by the English in America, was de- 
signed to last forever, it existed only forty years. Because 
Rhode Island was not of the same church fellowship it was 
not admitted as a member of this early union. 

King Philip's War. — The Puritans and the Pilgrims, 
who in the beginning were poor hunters and unskillful 
fishermen, in time learned how to take both game and 
fish. For colored cloth, knives, hatchets, beads, and other 
articles of little value they received from the Indians large 
tracts of land. The quantities of game and fish taken 
from forest and stream, as well as the loss of land, made 
life harder for the aborigines. The hope of recovering 
their woods and waters led the natives to listen to a plan 
of Philip of Pokanoket for destroying the white men. 
This warrior was a son of Massasoit, who had long been 
the friend of the Pilgrims. In 1675 he formed a union of 
his own tribe, the Wampanoags, with the Nipmucks and 
the Narragansetts. 

The war broke out in Rhode Island, but before long 
spread to Massachusetts and Plymouth. Town after town 
was taken by the Indians, and men, women, and children 
were massacred. In the dead of winter a force of one 
thousand English stormed the great swamp fortress of the 
Narragansetts in southern Rhode Island, killed a thousand 
warriors, and burned their wigwams and their winter 
supply of corn. The Narragansetts were exterminated 



KING PHILIP'S WAR; GOVERNOR ANDROS 



83 



and Philip fled to the Nipmucks, who, through the next 
year, continued the fight. They, too, were doomed. 
During three years the war dragged on. At least one 
thousand white men and scores of women and children 
perished. The savages were fiendish in their cruelty, but 





A FLINTLOCK AND A BANDOLEER 

the English were pitiless in their punish- 
ment. Tracked to his hiding place, King 
Philip was overtaken and shot. The power 
of the New England Indians was broken for- 
ever. 

Massachusetts Loses Charter (1684). — 
Massachusetts was instructed by King 
Charles II to permit the Episcopal form of 
worship, but paid no attention to his order. 
Another offense was her refusal to allow any persons to 
vote who were not members of the Congregational church. 
Many people who were not of that fold, resisted the colo- 
nial government, and in 1684, at the instance of the king, 
an English court annulled the charter. The next year 
Charles II was succeeded by his brother James II, who 
was equally determined to govern Massachusetts as a 
royal province. 

The Rule of Andres. — Partly for the purpose of defense 
against the French, who were becoming numerous in 
Canada, King James II resolved to unite all the northern 
plantations and put them under a single ruler.^ This offi- 
cial, Sir Edmund Andros, had his headquarters in Boston. 

1 This included not only all the New England provinces but New York 
and New Jersey. 



84 THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 

He had been directed to seize the charters of Connecticut 
and Rhode Island, but had failed. When he visited Hart- 
ford, in 1687, he could not find the charter, for it had been 
hidden in a hollow oak. From that time forth this tree 
was known as the Charter Oak. 

During the control of Andros the people of Boston were 
given much cause for complaint, and even without any 
revolution in England they probably would have risen up 
against him. James II was a Catholic, but the great 
majority of the English people were Protestants, who made 
such opposition that in 1688 the king fled to France. Eng- 
land welcomed his nephew and son-in-law, William III, who 
was crowned with his wife Mary. Hearing of the great 
events in England, the people of Boston threw Andros into 
prison and restored the old government. The new sov- 
ereigns, William and Mary, allowed Connecticut and Rhode 
Island to keep their old charters, and gave a new charter to 
Massachusetts, which was extended to include Plymouth 
and Maine. New Hampshire they kept a separate province. 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — What influence planted the first colony in 
New England? Give an account of the Pilgrims. What caused 
them to leave Holland? What was the Mayflower Compact? Name 
some of the early leaders in the Plymouth colony. How was local 
government managed? Tell the story of the first Thanksgiving Day. 

Who were the Puritans? What settlements were made by them? 
What is said of the charter granted by Charles I to the Massachu- 
setts Bay Company? By whom was Boston settled? What was the 
Puritan attitude toward the Established Church after they came to 
America? Who were the freemen in Massachusetts Bay? When was 
Harvard College founded? What is said of the Salem witchcraft? 

Describe the first settlements in the Connecticut Valley and tell 
how they came to be made. When was the first written constitu- 
tion prepared in America? When was New Haven founded? Why 
was it fortunate for the English that they settled Saybrook just 



QtTE.^TlONS AND REFERENCES fin 

when they did? How did Roger Williams serve the Connecticut 
colonists? When did the Pequot war break out and what was the 
result? Why did Charles II punish New Haven, and how? 

How did Roger Williams offend the authorities of Massachu- 
setts? Whither did he go? What form of government did his fol- 
lowers establish? What settlements were made by Mrs. Hutchinson 
and her friends? What did Williams succeed in doing in the year 
1643? For what does he stand in history? 

What two men made settlements in New Hampshire? What 
colony claimed the same territory? Who received the land between 
the Piscataqua and the Kennebec? What name did it receive? 
What was the character of the settlements? When did Maine be- 
come a part of Massachusetts? 

What union was formed in 1643? State the cause, the progress, 
and the result of King Philip's War. Why did the king annul the 
charter of Massachusetts? Describe the rule of Andros. 

References. — Thwaites, The Colonies (Epochs of American His- 
tory, Vol. I); Channing, A History of the United States, Vol. I; William 
Bradford, History of the Plymouth Plantation; John Fiske, The Be- 
ginnings of New England; Alexander Johnston, Connecticut (American 
Commonwealths); Richman, Rhode Island (American Common- 
wealths); Sanborn, New Hampshire (American Commonwealths); 
Fisher, The Colonial Era. 



CHAPTER VII 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



New Netherland 

Hudson's Exploration. — Early in the seventeenth cen- 
tury the States-General, the lawmaking body of the Dutch 
Repubhc, offered 25,000 guilders to the one who would 
find a northeast passage to China and Japan. This in- 
ducement led some 
merchants of Amster- 
dam to fit out the Half 
Moon, a small ship with 
a crew of sixteen. 
Henry Hudson, the 
English commander of 
this little vessel, sailed 
for the Arctic Ocean in 
April, 1609. Something 
like a mutiny among the 
members of his crew 
led him to leave that 
region of snow and ice. 
In September, 1609, 
Hudson arrived off 
New York Bay. Entering the bay, the Half Moon lay at 
anchor for a week. At the end of that time the explorers 
sailed up the river past Manhattan, along the Palisade rocks, 
and anchored opposite the site of West Point. Here there 
was some trade with the Indians, a few of whom they shot 
for attempting to steal. The crew resumed their exploration 

86 




THE HALF MOON ON THE HUDSON, 
OPPOSITE THE PALISADES 



NEW NETHERLAND 87 

and, finding the water growing shallow, the mate in a boat 
went up as far as where Troy now stands. Afterward the 
Half Moon dropped down the great river (now called the 
Hudson). In a short time Hudson was again in England, 
whence his vessel sailed for Holland. 

Adrian Block. — Dutch merchants immediately took ad- 
vantage of the reported riches of the new country. Many 
ships crossed the Atlantic and returned laden with furs. 
Christiansen, who made ten voyages to the Hudson River, 
built a trading post on Castle Island, now in the city of 
Albany. These traders did not fail to visit the Mana- 
hattas and carefully to note the resources of their island. 
Adrian Block, who had come out in the Tiger in 1612, 
built the Onrust (Restless) in America, and in it sailed by 
way of the East River, through " Helder-Gat," into Long 
Island Sound. On his map this explorer noted the Fresh 
River (Connecticut), Rood Island,^ and Block Island, which 
still bears his name. 

New Netherland. — The country re-discovered by Hud- 
son was officially named New Netherland. It included the 
territory between the Connecticut and Susquehanna rivers; 
was especially rich in furs; contained several deep rivers 
and many fine harbors. After a few years the Dutch 
government gave the control of this region to the great 
Dutch West India Company, Strange to say, the first 
settlers to come to America from Holland were not Dutch 
but Walloons, a French-speaking people who, like the 
English Pilgrims, had gone to Holland to obtain religious 
freedom. 

One of them, Jesse de Forest, asked and received from 
the States-General permission to enroll settlers for New 
Netherland. He brought together thirty-one families in 
Leyden, from which the Pilgrims had taken their depar- 

■ Rood is prouounced by the Dutch as if it were spelled Rode. 



88 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



ture for America not long before. After some delay, the 

Walloons were taken to New Netherland in the spring of 

1623. 
First Settlements in New Netherland. — Eighteen of 

the settlers were left on Manhattan. This was the be- 
ginning of New 
Avesnes (ah-van'), 
which was soon 
called New Am- 
sterdam. Many 
families settled on 
the site of the fu 
ture city of Albany, 
where they built 
Fort Orange. 

Early Dutch 
Governors. — The 
first governor was 
Peter Min'uit, a 
scholarly gentle- 
man of Huguenot 
ancestry. On his 
arrival he called 
together the In- 
dian chiefs and for 
about twenty-four 
dollars' worth of 
supplies bought 
from them the is- 
land of Manhattan. 

A military engineer planned an earthwork, which was named 

Fort Amsterdam. 

Minuit was succeeded by Walter van Twiller. From 

the first he was compelled to face grave difficulties. By 




NEW NETHERLAND 



THE PATROONS 89 

reason of Block's exploration the Dutch claimed the land 
west of the Connecticut River. They had bought large 
tracts from the natives, and about 1632 they built a fort 
on the site of Hartford. Notwithstanding this fact, 
the English in great numbers poured into the valley. 
Though Van Twiller asked permission to drive them out, 
the government of Holland ordered him to keep the peace. 
Under him the colony enjoyed prosperity; but in 1637 he 
was removed from office. 

The Patroons. — The Dutch, who enjoyed at home not 
only religious freedom but much material prosperity, came 
slowly to New Netherland. In 1630, after reserving Man- 
hattan, the West India Company issued a charter of 
"Privileges and Exemptions." This allowed a private 
person to take up a tract of land with a frontage of sixteen 
miles along the bank of a navigable river, or, if preferred, 
a front of eight miles on each side of the river. For this 
privilege he was required to plant within four years a col- 
ony of fifty adult settlers. This made him a patroon on 
a manor and gave him rights similar to those enjoyed by 
a lord in earlier times. For ten years the settlers could 
not leave the patroon because they were bound to service 
for that term. If they attempted to escape, they were 
treated as runaways, arrested, and brought back by force. 
For the term of their service, however, they were free from 
taxes, and at the end of that period were encouraged to 
seek homesteads for themselves. 

William Kieft. — The capable Van Twiller was followed 
in office by William Kieft. Though not without energy, 
the new governor was a tyrant. His policy drove the 
Indian into a war that brought bloodshed and wretched- 
ness to the people in the southern part of the province. 
After an unfortunate rule of ten years Kieft was replaced 
by Peter Stuyvesant (sti've-sant). 



90 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



Peter Stuyvesant. — The new governor did not arrive 
in New Amsterdam until 1G47. He had httle sympathy 
with free institutions; at one time he forbade popular 
pastimes at Easter and Christmas. In an effort to tax 
the people he was opposed. The leader of the opposition 
was thrown into prison. The people then asked the States- 
General to rule Now Netherland and begged for New 












NEW AMSTERDAM 



Amsterdam a city government. The Company opposed 
the granting of these petitions. Nevertheless, municipal 
government was proclaimed in 1653. That date marks 
the beginning of an era of prosperity not only for New 
Amsterdam but for all New Netherland. However, the 
credit for this condition does not belong to Stuyvesant 
but rather to the popular leaders. 



NEW SWEDEN 91 

New Sweden. — As early as 1638 Peter Minuit brought 
out for Queen Christina, of Sweden, fifty colonists whom he 
settled in what is now Delaware. The Swedish colony 
grew slowly. The Dutcli, on the other hand, were trying 
to estabUsh themselves near the site of the future city of 
Philadelphia. This rivalry was certain to cause hostih- 
ties. The Company ordered Stuyvesant to drive out the 
Swedes. With a large fleet and a force of 700 men he 
arrived in Delaware Bay in the autumn of 1655. Without 
shedding a drop of blood the Swedish forts were immedi- 
ately taken. The colonists were left free either to remain 
where they were, under Dutch rule, or return to Europe. 
Most of them agreed to remain. 

English Conquest of New Netherland. — Though Stuy- 
vesant conquered New Sweden, it was at a heavy expense, 
and in the end his victory assisted in the fall of New 
Netherland itself. An Indian outbreak in 1655 recalled 
him from the South River, as the Delaware was then called.^ 
The war continued, at intervals, for nine years. Stuyve- 
sant's military ability at last forced the red men to make 
peace, but meanwhile the growth of the Dutch colony was 
slow. 

As far back as 1648 Holland had made a treaty of peace 
with Spain. This deprived the West India Company of 
much of its income, for its long career of prosperity re- 
sulted from the plunder of Spanish treasure ships. Not 
only was the Company ruined by the treaty but all Holland 
was reduced to a state o^ distress. The passage, in 1651, 
of the English Navigation Act was another severe blow to 
Dutch commerce. This law required that all goods im- 

■ For the theft of a few peaches an angry Dutchman had whot a squaw. 
After this the savages, to the number of about 2000, landed on Manhattan, 
killed the murderer and another white man and then crossed the river to 
New Jersey. In that region and in Staten Island they killed or captured 
250 Dutch settlers. 



92 THE MIDDLE COLONIES 

ported into England must be l^rought in English ships. 
New Netherland was no longer able to meet its expenses, 
and at home the company itself was on the verge of bank- 
ruptcy. 

The weakness of New Netherland being well known to 
the English, King Charles II sent four warships to New 
Amsterdam. Soldiers and marines, from New England as 
well as from old England, were landed on August 26, 1664. 
Later the vessels sailed up and took positions opposite the 
fort, prepared to open fire. In this situation no defense 
was possible, and Governor Stuyvesant, much against his 
will, was forced by the leading Dutch settlers to surrender 
the town.^ 

New York 

The New Netherland colony had been given by Charles 
II to his brother James, then Duke of York and Albany. 
The greater part of New Netherland was now renamed 
New York, and the same name was given to New Amster- 
dam. The first English governor of this colony was 
Colonel Nicolls.2 

Governor Dongan. — In 1682 the Duke of York selected 
an Irish Catholic, Colonel Thomas Dongan, to govern the 
province of New York. Governor Dongan called the first 
representative assembly, which met in the fall of 1683. 
Under his guidance this body passed an act called " A 
Charter of Liberties." It gave the lawmaking power, 
under the Duke, to a governor, a council, and the people 
gathered in general assembly. 

' Though New Netherland was taken by the English in 1664, it was 
recaptured by the Dutch in 1673 and not till 1674 did it become a permanent 
possession of the English. 

* Governor NicoUs prepared a code known as the " Duke's Laws." These 
were even less liberal than the laws of the Dutch West India Company. 
Under the new regulations the people were not allowed to choose their officers 
or to have a voice in laying the taxes that they were compelled to pay. 



NEW YORK 



93 



In addition this remarkable law permitted every free- 
holder and freeman to vote for representatives; it pro- 
vided that no freeman should suffer under the law except 
by the judgment of his equals; that every trial at law 
should be by a jury of twelve 
men; that no taxes could be 
laid but by the consent of the 
Assembly; that no seaman or 
soldier could be quartered upon 
the people against their will; 
that martial law should not 
prevail; and finally that no 
person professing faith in God 
by Jesus Christ should be ques- 
tioned for any difference of 
opinion. 

This famous charter, passed, 
almost one hundred j^ears 
before the Declaration of In- 
dependence, contains most of 

the rights and privileges for which the War of the Revolu- 
tion was afterward fought. Dongan signed the Charter 
of Liberties on the 30th of October, 1683, and on the next 
day proclaimed it at the New York City Hall. The Duke 
signed and sealed the charter in the course of the following 
year, but never returned it. 

Achievements and Plans of Dongan. — Dongan fixed 
part of the present boundaries of New York by settling 
disputes with Connecticut on the east, with the French on 
the north, and with Pennsylvania on the south. In 1684 
at Albany he made a treaty with Indian chiefs in which 
the Irof^uois acknowledged themselves subjects of the 
Great Sachem Charles. He thus adopted the wise policy 
which kept the Five Nations friendly to the English and 




GOVERNOR DONGAN 



94 THE MIDDLE COLONIES 

made them a tower of strength against the French. In 
1685 he estabUshed a post office in New York to improve 
the welfare of the EngUsh colonies, and in the following 
year he granted charters to the cities of New York and 
Albany. 1 

The Coming of Andres. — In the meanwhile the Duke 
of York had become King James 11. In 1687 he dissolved 
the assembly of New York and sent out Andros to rule 
not only New York and New Jersey but all New Eng- 
land. This action deprived Dongan of his governorship. ^ 
When Andros made his headquarters in Boston, he left 
Lieutenant-Governor Francis Nicholson to manage the 
affairs of New York. At that time there were in the prov- 
ince two parties. One, the aristocratic, included the 
patroons, many rich merchants, and the officers appointed 
by the king. Opposed to them were small traders, small 
farmers and artisans, who formed the strength of the pop- 
ular party. The aristocratic party contained many Epis- 
copalians, the other was made up of men from the newer 
Protestant sects. 

1 The charter granted to New York, which is the basis of its present 
city government, remained in force for one hundred and thirty-five years; 
that given to Albany was set aside only in 1870. In New York, Governor 
Dongan established a college under the direction of the Jesuit Fathers, and 
advised that land be set apart for its support, but the king vetoed the grant 
Dongan planned the founding of a mission of English Jesuits at Saratoga, and 
a settlement of Irish Catholics in the central part of the province. Not less 
important was his scheme for sending an expedition to explore the Mississippi 
River and to occupy the valley. These farseeing plans were disapproved by 
the King. 

2 Refusing an offer of the rank of major general, Dongan retired to his 
estate on Staten Island. There the persecution stirred up by Leisler dis- 
covered him, and notwithstanding his services he was compelled to flee 
from the new ruler of the colony. In 1691 he returned to England. Seven 
years later he became the second Earl of Limerick. In 1715 he died in 
London. Perhaps no greater statesman was ever appointed to rule an 
English colony. Unfortunately for his fame he ^^rved a master of narrow 
views. • 



NEW YORK; NEW JERSEY 05 

Jacob Leisler. — In New York, Nicholson was sus- 
pected of being a Catholic, while the aristocratic party 
generally was accused of a design to betray the city into 
the hands of the French. It was in these circumstances 
that Jacob Leisler called out the militia, seized the fort, 
and drove Nicholson from the city. He soon dispersed 
the council and set up a government of his own. He 
first threw into prison members of the opposite party and 
then seized their property. 

Tidings of Leisler's lawless conduct reached the ears of 
King William III, who sent out Governor Sloughter with 
a small armed force to take charge of the province and re- 
store order. Leisler was tried for treason, convicted, and 
hanged. 

William's Harsh Rule. — In due time King William 
gave to the royal province of New York a form of govern- 
ment modeled on that of England. Under him the laws in 
nearly all the colonies were strictly enforced, and, if his 
colonial policy is compared with that of earlier kings, one 
must conclude that -his rule was despotic: 

New Jersey 

"The Jerseys." — While the four English warships were 
on their way to New Netherland (1664), the Duke of York 
conveyed to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret the 
large tract between the lower Hudson and the Delaware. 
Sir George had gallantly defended the island of Jersey in 
the English Channel, and in honor of his victory the grant 
was named New Jersey .^ Berkeley and Carteret divided 
the grant between them and encouraged colonists to come 
from England. They promised Uberty of conscience and 
generous allowances of land. 

1 On some of the old copper coins of the colony the inscripliou was Nova 
Caesaria, the Latin form for New Jersey. 



^6 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



Under Governor Carteret. — In 1665 Philip Carteret, a 
relative of Sir George, came to the colony as governor. 
During the following year there arrived from New Eng- 
land many settlers who received lands in East Jersey, near 
Newark. Naturally they estabhshed in their new homes 
the system of government with which they were familiar 

in New England. 




This was not pleas- 
ing to the proprie- 
tors, to the Duke 
of York, or to King 
Charles, for the New 
Englanders were op- 
posed to monarchs 
in general. In 1668 
the first lawmaking 
body of New Jersey 
met at Elizabeth- 
town (Elizabeth). 

Under the Quak- 
ers.— In 1674 Berke- 
ley, whose portion of 
the grant was called 
West Jersey, sold his 
interests to some 
wealthy Quakers, 
who settled near 
Burlington and encouraged religious toleration. Two years 
afterward William Penn, of whom we shall hear more, united 
with other members of the same sect to buy East Jersey. 
There were thus two colonies, East Jersey and West Jersey, 
until 1702, when the proprietors surrendered their rights, 
and New Jersey became a single royal province. 



SCALE OF MILES 



NEW JERSEY, DELAWARE, AND EASTERN 
PENNSYLVANIA 



THE FOUNDING OF PENNSYLVANIA 



97 



Pennsylvania 

Persecution in England. — When New Netherland was 
taken by the Enghsh, its nearest neighbor on the south was 
the English colony of Maryland, which had been founded 
by the Calvcrts as a refuge for persecuted Catholics. 
Many years later Pennsylvania was settled by persecuted 
Quakers. The Catholic and the Quaker proprietaries dif- 
fered from the Puritan leaders in that Maryland and 
Pennsylvania gave freedom of worship to all. In England 
the lot of the Quaker was not much better than that of 
the Catholic. 

William Penn. — One of the chief founders of the So- 
ciety of Friends or Quakers was WiUiam Penn, a son of 
Admiral Sir Wilham Penn, an 
officer of no small reputation. 
Admiral Penn was a friend of 
Charles II, to whom he had 
loaned £16,000. The younger 
Penn received a good educa- 
tion in Oxford University and 
while there came under the in- 
fluence of a Quaker minister. 
On his return home he was 
beaten by the Admiral and 
turned out of doors for having 
changed his reHgious belief. 
His father then sent him to Paris hoping that in its gay life 
he would lose some of the seriousness that he had acquired 
at Oxford. On going home to London he made no secret 
of his faith and so al^ly did he defend liis rights that his 
father not only forgave him but agreed to pay his debts. 

Pennsylvania and its Boundaries. — We have already 
seen that William Penn was interested in the Quaker 




WILLIAM PENN 



98 THE MIDDLE COLONIES 

settlements made in New Jersey. Because of debts due 
him and his father, by the Crown, Penn petitioned King 
Charles II to grant him land beyond the Delaware and to 
the north of Maryland in order that the Friends might 
try experiments in government under conditions more fa- 
vorable than was possible in the Jerseys. The King gave 
him a large tract, and named it Pennsylvania, or " Penn's 
Woodland," in honor of Penn's father. Later the King's 
brother James, Duke of York, added his own claim to the 
region west and south of Delaware Bay. These grants 
gave Penn some of the land that had been claimed by the 
Calverts for fifty years. The dispute over the boundary 
will be noticed in the following chapter, on the Southern 
Colonies. It is enough to state here that the matter was 
not finally settled until 1767, when two EngUsh surveyors. 
Mason and Dixon, located the southern boundary of 
Pennsylvania at 39° 40' and also fixed the boundaries of 
Delaware. 

Philadelphia. — Long before William Penn brought his 
colonists to America there were Swedes, Dutch, and 
English settlers hving upon his grant. In the year 1681 
he sent out his cousin, W^illiam Markham, to rule those 
inhabitants, and during the following year Penn himself 
with about one hundred emigrants sailed for Delaware. 
He landed at the Swedish settlement of Upland, a name 
which he changed to Chester. Farther up the river, 
where the Schuylldll flows into the Delaware, he decided 
to build his capital city, which he named after the Greek 
city of Philadelphia, in Asia Minor. Philadelphia grew 
apace and by 1685 it had a population of 2000. Its name 
means " Brotherly Love." 

Government of Pennsylvania. — In a little while the 
English formed no more than half the population of Penn- 
sylvania, Other settlers came from the German states, from 



GOVEliNMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 



99 



Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. The French element was also 
important. Within a hundred years Pennsylvania had 
as many inhabitants as Massachusetts, and was surpassed 
by Virginia only. This prosperity was due not only to the 
fine cUmate and the splendid resources of the province, but 
to the wise laws that were enacted and to the friendly 
relations which its proprietor established with the Indians. 




PENN S TREATY AVITH THE INDIANS 



From the beginning Penn insisted upon fair dealing with 
the natives. Soon after he received his charter he wrote 
to the Indian chiefs informing them of his good intentions. 
After his arrival in the colony he renewed his promises 
and entered into arrangements with them for the purchase 
of land. This was bought with wampum, looking-glasses, 
blankets, and shoes. 

In an important respect Penn's colony differed from 
"Mrginia and Massachusetts. There is no record of the 
marked intolerance in religious matters of which we read 
in the history of the first English settlements. In this 
view William Penn is to be ranked with the Calverts and 
Roger Williams as a wise and generous ruler. Penn also 



100 THE MIDDLE COLONIES 

did his best to provide good government for his colony. 
As proprietor he appointed the governor, but the legis- 
lature was elected by the people. 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — When did Hudson arrive off New York Bay? 
Describe his exploration of the Hudson River. What brought the 
Dutch to the country explored by Hudson? When did the families 
under Jesse de Forest arrive in America? How many were left on 
Manhattan Island? What was the effect of Kieft's rule? Describe his 
Indian policy. When did Stuyvesant arrive? When were the people 
given a city government? Does Stuyvesant deserve credit for the 
prosperity that blessed the colony? What conquest was made by 
the Dutch in 1654-55? What act led to war with the Indians? 
How had Holland been accustomed to raise money for expenses of 
government? Describe the English conquest of New Netherland. 

In honor of what event did New Jersey get its name? What 
inducements were made to attract settlers? In what part of the 
colony did New Englanders settle? When did Berkeley dispose of 
his share of West Jersey? Who purchased East Jersey? When did 
New Jersey become a royal province? 

Of what society was William Penn a member? How did he obtain 
land in America and for what purpose did he acquire it? What is 
meant by Mason and Dixon's line? What is said of Pennsylvania's 
chief city? What non-English settlers came to the colony? In the 
matter of religious toleration compare Pennsylvania with Virginia and 
Massachusetts. 

References. — William Elliot Griffis, New Netherland; Roberts, 
New York (American Commonwealths), Vol. I; Thwaites, The Col- 
onies (Epochs of American History, Vol. I); Channing, A History of 
the United States, Vol. I; George P. Fisher, The Colonial Era; Doyle, 
The English Colonies in America; Sidney George Fisher, The True 
WiUiam Penn. 



CHAPTER VI J 1 
THE SOUTHERN COLONIES ^ 



Maryland 

Lord Baltimore in America. — In 1627 George Calvert, 
Lord Baltimore, visited Av'alon, a settlement which he 
had attempted to make in Newfoundland. In the course 
of the next year he removed to the colony witli his wife 
and all his children except his son Cecilius. The settlers, 
then about one hundred in number, 
were annoyed by French warships, 
though in the fighting that followed 
the English won undoubted advan- 
tages. A Puritan minister. Reverend 
Mr. Stourton, returned to England 
to complain that Calvert had brought 
" Popish " priests into Avalon and 
that mass was said there every Sun- 
day. But an enemy more to be feared 
than the French or the Puritans was 
the climate. Calvert soon learned that he had been de- 
ceived and that, except as a fishing station, his settle- 
ment was a failure. In a friendly letter, King Charles I 
invited him to return to England. 

Disappointment and Death. — Before receiving the king's 
invitation. Lord Baltimore with the members of his house- 
hold and forty of his colonists had left Avalon for the 
pleasanter country on Chesapeake Bay. In the fall of 

U * The founding of Virginia, the greatest of the Southern Colonies, has f 
{already been described, pages 54-63. V 

101 




GEORGE CALVERT 



102 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 



1629 they arrived at Jamestown. There Calvert was at 
once asked to take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy. 
As the oath of supremacy stated that the king was supreme 
governor in all spiritual affairs, Calvert refused to take it, 
because, as a Cathohc, he beheved the Pope to be the 
spiritual head of the Church. Moreover, as the Virginia 
Company had been dissolved, he may well have doubted 
the right of the officials to administer this oath. Calvert 
was not only received with coldness but, by the more 
fanatical, was even threatened with personal violence. 
Disappointed a second time, he and his weary pilgrims 
sailed for England. On his arrival he asked Charles I 
for a grant of land south of the James River. This also 

was opposed by the 
Virginians, who had 
sent commissioners 
to England to defeat 
any such applica- 
tion. Therefore, 
though Calvert did 
not urge his request, 
he was given a tract 
in the unsettled 
country north of the 
Potomac. In honor 
of his queen, Henri- 
etta Maria, Charles 
gave to the proposed 
colony the name of Maryland, or Terra Mariae. In 1632, 
before the charter was sealed, Lord Baltimore died. 

The Charter of Maryland. — On the death of George 
Calvert the grant intended for him was conferred upon 
his eldest son Cecilius. In extent it was much greater 
than the present state of Maryland, for it included in 




SCALE OF MILES 



MARYLAND BY THE ORIGINAL PATENT 



THE FOUNDING OF MARYLAND 103 

addition the whole of Delaware, the wide strip of Penn- 
sylvania lying south of the fortieth parallel, and some land 
now occupied by West Virginia. Moreover, for the gov- 
ernment of this colony, the charter gave Calvert almost 
royal power — greater power than had ever before been 
granted to an English subject.^ 

Settlement of St. Mary's. — The Ark and the Dove 
were engaged to bring Calvert's people to America. His 
brother Leonard was given command of the expedition 
and a still younger brother, George, accompanied him. 
There were about twenty " gentlemen," mostly Catholics, 
and betAveen two hundred and three hundred laborers 
and artisans. Some historians think that about half the 
emigrants were Protestants, while others believe that a 
majority were of that faith. Two Jesuit priests, Reverend 
Andrew White and Reverend John Altham, came with 
the settlers. 

The company left England on November 22, 1633. On 
the feast of the Annunciation, March 25, 1634, they landed 
and celebrated their first mass in Maryland. After some 
exploration they settled at a place where a small river 
flows into the Potomac. To their new home they gave 
the name St. Mary's. 

Relations with the Indians. — In deaHng with the na- 
tives they adopted a wiser course than the Virginians 
had done. For cloth, axes, and other articles they bought 

' The P^op^ietar^^ as Lord Baltimore was called, exercised in the colony 
powers similar to those exercised by the King in England. He could build 
cities and towns, and make certain places ports of entry ; make war and con- 
clude peace, set up courts of law, and appoint judges and other officials. He 
could not only enforce laws and pardon offenders, but, with the consent of 
the freemen of Maryland, could make laws. He could establish churches and 
chapels, have them consecrated according to the ecclesiastical laws of England, 
and appoint the incumbents. For his privileges the Proprietary was to de- 
liver yearly to the King two Indian arrows and one fifth of all the gold and 
silver mined in the province. 



104 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 



land on which to make their settlement. The neighboring 
Indians also gave them a part of their village, keeping for 
themselves another part until they had gathered their 
growing crops. To Father White was given a chief's hut 
for a chapel. 








THE CEREMONY AT THE FOUNDING OF ST. MARY S 



Opposition of Virginians. — In the beginning the people 
of Maryland enjoyed a double blessing. They were spared 
the horrors of Indian warfare, and their interests were 
made the chief care of a wise ruler. Nevertheless, they 
were made to feel that some sort of affliction seems to be 
the common lot of humanity. The scourge of the province 
was William Claiborne, secretary of state for Virginia 
and an able man of business. His hatred and his activity 
well-nigh destroyed the infant colony. Against Maryland 



TROUBLE WITH CLAIBORNE 105 

the Virginians had three grievances. In the first phicc, 
the Maryland charter, they said, covered territory that 
had been included in their own grant.^ The Virginians, to 
be sure, had neglected to settle it, but they still looked 
upon it as their own. In the second place, Maryland was 
a Catholic province, and they did not like to have its 
people so near them. Then, too, in foreign markets, 
Maryland had certain trading privileges which Virginia 
did not possess. 

Trouble with Claiborne. — Claiborne was the agent or 
the partner of a company of London merchants which was 
formed to carry on a trade in furs with the Indians north 
of Virginia, and to conduct this traffic he built a trading 
post on Kent Island, in Chesapeake Bay, north of the 
Potomac. He had some trouble with the Indians, and 
before long their attacks compelled him to defend his 
trading post by building a fort. 

When the Maryland settlers arrived, Claiborne was noti- 
fied that Kent Island was within the limits of their grant. 
In a courteous letter he was informed by Governor Calvert 
that Lord Baltimore desired to give him all possible en- 
couragement consistent with the charter, and he was asked 
to a friendly conference. Claiborne not only disregarded 
this invitation, but contiriued to inflame the minds of 
Virginians against the Maryland colonists. Tidings of this 
conduct having reached Lord Baltimore, he ordered that 
Kent Island should be seized and Claiborne held a prisoner. 

In a little more than a year after St. Mary's was settled 
there was open war with the forces of Claiborne. During 
its progress one of his ships was captured and its com- 
mander killed. Though both the King and Governor 
Harvey of Virginia advised trade with Maryland, a Puri- 

' The Virginia charter was annulled in lf)24, so that the king really had 
the right to make the Maryland grant as he did. 



106 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 







tan element, with Claiborne as one of its leading spirits, 
refused to hold any commercial relations with St. Mary's. 
For a time the influence of the King preserved the peace, 

but the feeling be- 
tween the colonies 
continued to be one 
of great bitterness. 

The Maryland 
Assembly. — In 
February, 1635, un- 
der the presidency 
of Leonard Calvert, 
the first assembly 
met at St. Mary's, 
It seems to have 
been composed of all 
the freemen of the 
colony. They drew 
up several laws 
which they sent to 
the Proprietary for 
his approval. This 
was refused, prob- 
ably because the 
charter gave him the 
right to make laws 
with the consent of 
the freemen and not 
the freemen with his 
consent. In 1638 the second assembly met. This like- 
wise included all the freemen of the colony, who were 
present in person or were represented by proxies; it was 
presided over by the governor, with whom were united 
certain councillors appointed by Lord Baltimore. A 




^UdplMilrrJl 



<Sh 



fonU BAL 



1^,^^ 




_ I ^t CsdlUirxnt m Sxrjvir 



CECILIUS CALVERT, LORD BALTIMORE, 
PROPRIETARY OF MARYLAND 



MARYLAND 107 

draft of laws sent out by him was read to the assembly 
and rejected. Thus, members of the assembly would not 
agree to laws proposed by the Proprietary, and he would 
not approve laws proposed by them. At last he adopted 
a very wise policy. He gave his brother, Leonard Calvert, 
full power to approve laws passed by the assembly. As 
that body had shown that it could be trusted to manage 
the affairs of the colony. Lord Baltimore reserved to him- 
self only the right to veto measures to which he objected. 
Thus, about four years after its settlement, was self-govern- 
ment established in Maryland. 

Rapid Growth of the Colony. — Calvert had found it no 
easy task to bring together the two or three hundred colo- 
nists that came over in the Ark and the Dove. Yet, when 
the people of England learned that Maryland had a de- 
lightful climate and a fertile soil, that it was free from 
Indian wars, that the freemen were really governing them- 
selves, and that both Catholics and Protestants enjoyed 
full religious liberty, it was not hard to persuade others 
to come and share those blessings. Those who came alone 
were given homesteads, while those who brought five, ten, 
or twenty colonists were given large estates. Persons un- 
able to pay their passage went to a ship captain, who 
readily brought them to Maryland. On their arrival he 
sold their services to the planters. These poor men, 
masons, bricklayers, carpenters, and farm laborers, were 
known as indented servants. When they had served their 
masters for the term agreed upon, they became freemen. 
Such indented servants went also to Virginia and other 
colonies. 

The Jesuit Missionaries. — With the zeal that has al- 
ways marked the members of the Society of Jesus they 
labored ardently among the natives, many of whom 
readily embraced Christianity. In 1640 the chief of the 



108 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 

Pascat'aways was baptized and married according to Chris- 
tian rites. His little daughter, seven years old, was sent 
to St. Mary's to be educated. As the Jesuits had done 
elsewhere, they instructed their numerous converts not 
only in matters of doctrine but also in many of the useful 
arts. They cared for them in sickness and fed them in 
times of famine. It is not surprising, then, that the 
Jesuit missionary was ever a welcome guest in the wig- 
wam of the red man. 

Invasion of Claiborne and Ingle. — The year 1642 
marked the beginning of the great Civil War in England. 
The Maryland settlers naturally took sides, and for many 
years there was serious disturbance. During this era of 
unrest Richard Ingle, who arrived with a merchant ves- 
sel, began to make treasonable speeches. To avoid prose- 
cution he made his escape. Claiborne, too, took ad- 
vantage of the disorder to revisit Kent Island and to 
form a party in his interest. Later Ingle returned with 
an armed ship. St. Mary's was seized, and Calvert fled 
to Virginia to ask assistance from Governor Berkeley. 
For two years the followers of Claiborne and Ingle be- 
haved like bandits. They imprisoned men, pillaged 
plantations, seized cattle, stripped mills of their ma- 
chinery, and even houses of their locks. The mission 
stations were broken up, and Father White was sent 
in irons to England, where he was tried for treason but 
acquitted. 

Return and Death of Governor Calvert. — With a small 
force of Marylanders, who had fled before the invaders, 
and some Virginians, Calvert returned and once more 
established his authority. But on June 9, 1647, he died. 
"After thirteen years of service in the highest office in 
province," says an able historian, ''this wise, just, and 
humane governor left a personal estate amounting to only 



MARYLAND ACT OF TOLERATION 109 

one hundred and ten pounds sterling." ^ This is a fine 
tribute to the justice of Leonard Calvert, the first governor 
of Maryland. 

Act of Toleration (1649). — Maryland had adopted 
many of the laws and customs of the mother country, but 
in them made some noted improvements. In the instruc- 
tions which Lord Baltimore gave to the colonists before 
they sailed, he directed that absolute impartiality between 
Catholics and Protestants should be observed, and that 
even a discussion of differences about rehgion should not 
be permitted. These instructions were dated November 
13, 1633. It must be remembered that there was then 
no country in the world in which religious beUef was 
free.2 

In 1649 the assembly of Maryland passed the famous 
Act of Toleration. It made blasphemy against any person 
of the Holy Trinity punishable by death. A fine was 
imposed on those making reproachful speeches against the 
Blessed Virgin or the Apostles. Those also were punished 
who applied to others such epithets as Puritan, Jesuit, 
Papist, or heretic. It declared that the "enforcing of the 
conscience in matters of rehgion hath frequently fallen 
out to be of dangerous consequence," and the better to 
preserve mutual love and amity among the inhabitants 
of the province "no person professing behef in Jesus 
Christ" shall be "in any ways troubled, molested, or dis- 
countenanced for or in respect of his or her religion, nor in 

1 Browne, Maryland — The History of a Palatinate, p. 64. 

- In England the House of Commons had openly declared against tol- 
eration. Before his death Governor Calvert appointed Thomas Greene 
as his successor. Hitherto the chief accusation against the authorities was 
their religion. In England it was represented that the Protestant settlers 
were oppressed. To put an end to this misrepresentation Lord Baltimore 
in 1648 removed Greene from the governorship and appointed in his place 
one William Stone, a Protestant. The governor's oath bound him to molest 
no person of the Christian faith on account of religion. 



no 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 



the free exercise thereof." The act merely confirmed the 
policy that Baltimore had adopted at the outset.^ 

The Puritans in Power. — While Cromwell was the ruler 
of England (note, p. 62), Maryland was harassed by ene- 
mies both within and without, but for this condition 
Cromwell does not appear to have been directly respon- 
sible. His treatment of Lord Baltimore seems to have 
been as fair as could have been expected by one of the late 
king's friends. Much of the trouble was due to Richard 
Bennett, one of many persecuted Puritans who had taken 

refuge in Maryland and 
had sworn fidelity to its 
proprietary. In 1654 
he joined Claiborne, the 
enemy of the province. 
With a force of Mary- 
landers and Virginians 
they compelled Gover- 
nor Stone to resign and 
in his place appointed 
Puritan commissioners. 
The difference be- 
tween the Calverts and 
other rulers of that 
time was then made clear. The commissioners issued 
writs for the election of members to a general assembly. 
It was provided that no man of the Roman Catholic faith 
could be elected an assemblyman or even cast a vote. 
The assembly thus chosen soon repealed the Toleration 
Act of 1649 and passed a new law concerning religion. 
This provided that no Roman Catholic could be protected 

> The first governor, Leonard Calvert, held the same opinions. Indeed, 
from the beginning of the colony no man had ever been molested on account 
of his religions belief. The greatest care had been taken not to offend the 
Protestant settlers. Two Catholics who did so were tried and punished. 




COINS OF THE MARYLAND COLONY 



Maryland 111 

in the province. Toleration was granted to all except 
Roman Catholics, Quakers, Anabaptists, Brownists, and 
some members of the smaller Protestant sects. In short, 
the Puritans tolerated no one but themselves. 

Lord Baltimore brought many outrages to the attention 
of Cromwell, who soon compelled Bennett and his Virginia 
fanatics to change their attitude toward Maryland. 
Once more the authority of the Proprietary was fully re- 
stored. Those who had been in arms against him were 
given the choice of either leaving the province or promising 
support of its government. In the agreement between 
the parties there was a clause that made perpetual the 
Toleration Act of 1649. 

Maryland after the Restoration. — Under Charles II 
and James II, the Baltimores were sustained as the pro- 
prietors of Maryland, although the extent of the province 
was much diminished by the grants to William Penn. 
But the reign of William and Mary was indeed an evil 
time for Lord Baltimore. He had been very unfairly 
treated by James II, a member of his own faith, and could 
hardly expect favor from King William, the head of the 
Protestant party in Europe. 

By this time many Maryland Protestants had worked 
themselves into a frenzy. They seized the government, 
and in their name one Coode prepared an address to the 
King. They had taken up arms, he asserted, in defense 
of the Protestant rehgion, and in order to secure the prov- 
ince to his Majesty. Petitions asking William to take 
over the government of the colony were sent to England 
from nearly every county. The Catholic inhabitants 
denied Coode's calumnies, but William ignored their 
denials, kept the province, and in August, 1691, ap- 
pointed Sir Lionel Copley royal governor of Mary- 
land. Twenty-five years later, when one of the Cal verts 



112 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 

had become a Protestant, the colony was restored to that 
family. 

Territorial Losses. — The northern boundary of Mary- 
land, by its charter, was the parallel of 40° north latitude, 
whicli runs a little north of Philadelphia. But fifty years 
later, by the favor of Charles II, William Penn laid claim 
to a boundary much farther south, and the best that 
Lord Baltimore could do was to accept the compromise 
line that forms the present boundary.^ Delaware also was 
lost because the Swedish and Dutch settlements there 
were seized by the Duke of York in 1664. 

Delaware 

The earliest settlement in Delaware was planted by 
Peter Minuit in 1638. Having been dismissed by the 
Dutch West India Company, he was now acting for a 
Swedish company.- Most of the first settlers were Dutch- 
men, but others came later from Sweden and Finland. 

We have already seen how New Sweden was conquered 
by the Dutch in 1655 (p. 91). As part of New Nether- 
land it was taken by the Duke of York, who granted 
Delaware to William Penn in 1681. 

For a time this colony was governed as part of Pennsyl- 
vania. But presently the people secured the privilege of 
electing a legislature for themselves, so that Delaware 
was regarded as a separate colony under the proprietorship 
of the Penns. 

1 The manner in which Penn acquired land that had been granted to 
Calvert is entertainingly related by William Hand Browne in Maryland, 
(American Commonwealths). 

2 The founder of this company was WUliam Usselinx, a Belgian by 
birth, who had been also the chief founder of the Dutch West India Com- 
pany. Failing to receive in Holland the reward which he expected for his 
services, he visited Sweden and secured the formation of a new company 
under a Swedish charter. 



THE ALBEMARLE COLONY 



113 



The Carolinas 

When Charles II was called to the throne of England 
(1660), he and his courtiers were impoverished by many 
years of exile. As they could not safely repair their 
ruined fortunes by taxing the people of England, some of 
them tried to do so by colonizing. In 1660, as we have 
seen, there were English colonics in Virginia, Maryland, 
and New England, but a Dutch colony in New Netherland, 
which was presently captured and divided into New York, 
New Jersey, and 



56^0— 



Delaware. Un- 
der Charles II, 
also, the new 
colony of Penn- 
sylvania was es- 
tablished in the 
North. We are 
now to see what 
new colonies 
were established 
in the South. 

The Albe- 
marle Colony. 
— One of the 
men who had 
helped Charles 
II to get his throne was General Monk, who was re- 
warded for his services and made Duke of Albemarle. 
Eight friends of Charles II, including Albemarle, soon 
obtained a grant of land extending from 29° to 36° 30' 
north latitude and westward from the Atlantic to the 
Pacific. As early as 1653 some Virginians searching for 
more fertile lands had settled near Albemarle Sound. 




a ULF 

1-29; 

MEXICO 



CAROLINA BY THE GRANT OF 1663 



114 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 

The proprietors seem to have directed Governor Berkeley, 
of Virginia, to provide for the government of those colo- 
nists, and that official sent William Drummond to rule 
them. This part of the Carolina country came to be known 
as the Albemarle Colony. 

When Charles II became king, the land titles of British 
planters in the island of Barbados began to be questioned. 
This doubt caused many to look about and try their for- 
tunes elsewhere. To those who would emigrate to Carohna 
within five years liberal grants of land were promised, and 
all settlers were assured liberty of conscience. Lord Ashley 
caused his secretary, the philosopher John Locke, to prepare 
a constitution for the government of the settlers. But his 
scheme was not at all suited to the needs of the colo- 
nists.^ 

Beginnings of Charleston (1670). — Three vessels were 
fitted out by some of the proprietors and took on board 
more than one hundred settlers, who arrived in the Savan- 
nah River in March, 1670. In about a month they settled 
themselves at points around Charleston harbor. During 
the year 1680 some of the settlers moved to the site of 
Charleston. A few French Huguenots and a company of 
Scots came during the following years. 

1 "The Fundamental Constitution" or "Grand Model" was perhaps 
the most complex system of government ever proposed. By it the colo- 
nists were to be divided into four classes, namely, proprietaries, land- 
graves, caciques, and leetmen. Corresponding to these classes the land 
was divided into seignories, baronies, precincts, and colonies. The object 
of the law, said Locke, was to protect the interests of the proprietaries and 
to establish a government "agreeable to monarchy and that we may avoid 
erecting a numerous democracy." Under this scheme the leetmen were 
to be mere serfs bound to the soil. But in a country in which men could 
easily make a living for themselves from field, forest, and stream, it proved 
to be impossible to set up classes. What the philosopher feared was exactly 
what came to pass: Carolina became a hotbed of democracy. Every 
attempt to put the Grand Model in force irritated the people, and finally 
it was abandoned. 



TliE TWO CAROLINAS; GEORGIA 



115 



The Two Carolinas. — By 1700 there were about 8000 
inhabitants in Carohna. After the settlement of Charles- 
ton the northern and the southern group of plantations 
sometimes had separate governors. When in 1729 the 
proprietors sold Carolina to the king, the territory was 
divided into two 
royal provinces, 
North Carolina and 
South Carolina. 

Georgia 

Imprisonment for 
Debt. — The author- 
ities of Carolina gave 
much attention to 
the task of defend- 
ing the settlements 
against the attacjcs 
of their Spanish 
neighbors in Florida, 
but they found it 
too expensive to 
keep up a military 
post. This fact came to the attention of James Edward 
Oglethorpe. During his service in the House of Commons 
he had learned of the hard fate of debtors, who were often 
thrown by their creditors into the most loathsome jails. 
His idea was to pay their debts, open their prison doors, 
and send them as settlers into that part of South Carolina 
nearest the Spaniards. 

Savannah Settled (1733). — With other humane men 
General Oglethorpe obtained from King George II a grant 
of land from the mouth of the Savannah to that of the 
Altamaha'; thence to their sources, and from those points 




OGLETHORPE VISITING A DEBTOR IN PRISON 



116 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 

westward to the South Sea. With one hundred and fifty 
freed debtors Oglethorpe founded Savannah in 1733. 
This community, the last of the thirteen colonies, was to 
serve as a "buffer " settlement, which in honor of the King 
was named Georgia. 

Slow Growth. — Land was allotted to the Georgia colo- 
nists in small tracts; moreover, they were forbidden to 
own slaves. This made it impossible for them to compete 
with the prosperous planters of the Carolinas, and there- 
fore the new colony made little progress. In 1751 the 
trustees, who were disappointed at their lack of success, 
gave up their rights to the Crown. A generation passed 
before the population of the colony exceeded 6000 white 
persons. Later some Protestants came from Salzburg, in 
Austria, Italians from Piedmont, and some Huguenots 
from France. 

Questions and Referen^ces 

Review Questions. — Tell the story of Avalon. Describe the 
extent of territory and the nature of the powers conferred upon the 
second Lord Baltimore. What is said of the dispute with Claiborne? 
What wise arrangement was made in respect to the laws passed in 
the colony? Give the facts of the Claiborne-Ingle invasion. Discuss 
the Act of Toleration. How did the Puritans behave when in power? 
After having lost the colony, how did the Lords Baltimore recover it? 

Name the different owners of Delaware. How did Delaware come 
to be separated from Pennsylvania? 

How did Charles II assist his friends? What is said of the Albe- 
marle colony? Why did English settlers desire to leave Barbados? 
What is said of Locke's scheme of government? Describe it. Tell 
of the beginnings of Charleston. What event happened in 1729? 

What was the condition of debtors in England? When and by 
whom was Georgia founded? Explain its slow growth. 

References. — William Hand Browne, Maryland (American Com- 
monwealths); Channing, A History of the United States, Vol. I; 
Fisher, The Colonial Era; Clayton Colman Hall, The Lords Baltimore; 
Doyle, The English Colonies in America. 



CHAPTER IX 

SURVEY OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES 

In 1707 England and Scotland were united into the one 
kingdom of Great Britain, and the eleven English colonies 
in North America became British colonies. But the words 
England and English nevertheless continued in common use, 
in referring to the united kingdom. By 1733 the number of 
the colonies was increased to thirteen by the division of Caro- 
hna and the founding of Georgia (maps, pages 162, 204). 



lW .- 






' ^'t7'^ — — — -er Tnir^^- 








NEW YORK IN 1732 

English Colonies After 1700. — In 1700 the population 
of the English colonies was over 250,000, of which Vir- 
ginia had "almost one fourth. Boston, with 7000 people, 
was the largest place in New England. Villages, often far 
apart, but no cities were found between there and New 
York, which had a population of 5000. Burlington, the 
old capital of New Jersey, was then its most important 

117 



il8 SURVEY OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES 

town. Ten thousand people made Philadelphia the largest 
city in the colonies. At a later time Baltimore was men- 
tioned as a hamlet of a hundred souls. Lancaster, in Penn- 
sylvania, was the largest inland town. 

Races Represented. — Of the thirteen colonies ten were 
settled almost entirely by Englishmen. In New York, 
Walloons and Dutch made up. the first communities, as 
the Swedes and Finns were the most numerous of tho 
early settlers in Delaware. Like the first settlers of New 
York, those of New Jersey were Hollanders. In consider- 
able numbers French Calvinists came to the Carohnas. 
Companies of Germans colonized the Mohawk Valley, in 
New York, but to Pennsylvania they went by thousands, 
and from it, down the valleys of the Appalachians, they 
poured into the western parts of Maryland and Virginia. 
Before the year 1700 there began to flow from Ireland a 
stream of immigration that has continued for more than 
two hundred years. Multitudes of settlers from the north 
of Ireland came to Pennsylvania. • In some periods as 
many as ten thousand arrived during a single year. For 
the most part these were of the Presbyterian religion, but 
from very early times Irish Catholics were coming to the 
colonies. Welsh immigrants, too, settled in Pennsylvania 
and in some of the other plantations. 

Forms of Government. — ■ The thirteen British colonies 
in 1733 may be grouped into three classes, — charter, pro- 
prietary, and royal. The colonies of Massachusetts,^ Rhode 
Island, and Connecticut had charters issued to the people. 
In all three the people at first had the right to elect their 
governors as well as their legislatures; but the second 
charter of Massachusetts (1691) provided that the king 
should appoint the governor of that colony. Maryland, 

' Massachusetts included not only Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth 
but also Maine. 



GOVERNMENT 119 

Pennsylvania, and Delaware were ruled by proprietaries, 
Calverts or Penns, who owned the land, appointed gov- 
ernors, and approved laws passed by the assemblies. The 
seven remaining colonies, namely, New Hampshire, New 
York, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, 
and Georgia (after 1751) were known as royal provinces. 
As the king could not rule them in person, he appointed 
for each a governor to represent him. But whether the 
governor was elected by the people, appointed by a pro- 
prietor, or named by a king, there had come into existence 
in each colony a lawmaking body, which raised money by 
taxation and used it to pay the expenses of government. 
This assembl}', as time went on, gained more and more 
power. 

Unrepresented in Parliament. — The colonists sent no 
members to Parliament.^ This lack of representation led 
later to the appointment of colonial agents, who lived in 
England and who took care of the interests of their own 
and sometimes of other colonies. 

Lords of Trade. — The regulation of colonial laws and 
trade soon proved too great a burden for the personal 
attention of the king or the chief ministers of state. This 
led to the selection of a committee known after 1696 as 
the Lords of the Board of Trade and Plantations. Briefly 
stated their duty Avas to superintend the trade and govern- 
ment of the colonies. 

The Colonial Governor. — The governor was the most 
important official in colonial life. In eight of the prov- 
inces governors were appointed by the king. Even for 
Maryland as well as for Pennsylvania and Delaware he ap- 
proved those named by the proprietaries. The governor's 

1 The Parliament, which is composed of the House of Lords and the 
House of Commons, is the body which makes laws for the United Kingdom 
of Great Britain and Ireland as well as for the British Empire. 



120 SURVEY OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES 

duty was to suggest laws to the assemblies, to send home 
copies of those that were passed, and to report on the 
general affairs of the colony. More important was his 
power to veto or forbid the passage of acts contrary to the 
laws of England. Any colonial law, moreover-, could be 
vetoed or " disallowed " by the king. The governor was 
commander of the militia, could call meetings of the as- 
sembly, and adjourn or even dissolve it. 

The Council. — Acting as advisers to the governor of 
each colony were from three to twenty-eight men called a 
council. In Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware its 
members were named by the proprietaries, in the royal 
provinces bythe king, and in Massachusetts by the General 
Court. They acted not only as advisers to the governor 
but as an upper house of the legislature and oftentimes 
as the supreme court. 

The Assembly. — With the council as an upper house of 
the legislature, nearly every colony had a lawmaking body 
of two divisions. The members of the assembly were 
elected by such of the people as could vote.^ It cooper- 
ated with the governor and the council in making laws, 
levying taxes, and appointing officers. In time the right 
to raise and expend money made the assembly a powerful 
body. 

Local Government. — In the New England communi- 
ties local affairs were chiefly managed by the township, in 
the Southern provinces by the county, and in the Middle 
Colonies partly by the county and in part by the township. 

Colonial Laws. — In colonial times the punishment of 
crimes was often cruel, and the death penalty was in- 
flicted for many offenses. It was common to brand a 
criminal. From the neck of a drunkard was suspended a 

1 In all the colonies it was necessary to be a male adult and to own a 
certain amount of property in order to vote. 



COLONIAL LAWS; HOUSES 



121 



scarlet letter "D." In parts of New England it was for- 
bidden to travel from town to town, to cook, or even to 
walk about the village on the Sabbath. Slander, scolding, 
and profanity were often punished by gagging or by duck- 
ing. Thus a scold might be gagged and then placed in 
her own doorway. The person sentenced to be ducked 
was tied to a chair beside a stream or a pond. Chair and 




LOG HOUSE 



victim were then swung over the water and lowered by 
means of a long lever like a well sweep. For certain 
offenses men were placed in the stocks on the occasion of 
some public gathering. With both hands and feet tied 
they were likely to be pelted with eggs or other missiles by 
men and boys. Those inclined to swearing had their 
tongues pinched with a split stick. 

Houses. — In New York the first settlers built wig- 
wams in the manner of the Indians. The log house, which 



122 



SURVEY OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES 



was common everywhere, soon followed. Instead of glass 
many windows had oiled paper. In a little while rich 
men, whose number rapidly increased, began to build fine 
mansions. Like the first houses the early furniture was 
homemade and rude. The fine mansions were filled with 
costly furniture, silver, and china . 




COLONIAL HOUSE IN MARYLAND, BUILT 1740 

Clothing. — Rich men wore broadcloth garments orna- 
mented with lace ruffles. Knee breeches were then in 
fashion, and were worn with long silk stockings and shoes 
graced by silver buckles. Wealthy women wore garments 
of silk or of brocade and very high headdresses beautified 
by ostrich plumes. Workingmen wore breeches of leather, 
buckskin, or coarse canvas, and in summer in the country 
parts they sometimes went barefoot. 



MANUFACTURES; AGRICULTURE 123 

Manufactures. — In the matter of manufactures the 
colonies had some advantages over England. Their fine 
forests supplied fir for masts, oak for planks, and pine 
from which could be made tar and "turpentine. Hemp was 
easily raised. It was this abundance of material which 
early made shipbuilding an important industry. In this 
business New England was much interested. 

Weaving was brought into Pennsylvania by the Germans 
and into many of the other colonies by immigrants from 
Ireland. The woolen industry would have thrived but 
for the interference of ParUament, which passed acts pre- 
venting the export of woolen goods. Such goods could not 
lawfully be shipped to another colony, and the act of 1699 
made it unlawful to sell them in a different part of even 
the same province. England preferred to take from her 
colonies raw material, manufacture it, and then ship it 
back. 

The abundance of forests and of water power led to the 
building of saw mills, and in a little while great quantities 
of lumber were shipped to England. At first white men 
ground their corn just as the Indians did. The hand 
mill soon came into general use, but before long the water 
mill took its place. A little iron ore was mined in early 
days, much of it being collected in bogs and swamps. 
From it a poor quality of iron was made. New York, 
New Jersey, and Virginia soon had bloomeries and blast 
furnaces. 

Agriculture. — The first settlers searched for gold and 
for a passage to India; then they attempted to grow 
tea and other plants not adapted to the climate. Tobacco, 
an important crop in Virginia and Maryland, was of some 
account in North Carolina, which also produced tar and 
turpentine. In South Carolina rice was the chief staple, 
and, until the Revolution, attention was paid to the raising 



124 



SURVEY OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES 



of indigo. Maize or Incliaii corn, wheiit, potatoes, and 
fruits were the principal crops of New England and the 
Middle Colonies. But everywhere the farmer was some- 
thing more than a husbandman; in fact, he was also by 
turns fisherman, hunter, and lumberman. 

Travel and Communication. — For distant travel there 
was no steamboat, no steam railway, no electric car, no 

automobile, and in 
very early days no 
stagecoach. Much 
local travel was on 
horseback or by 
means of sailing ves- 
sels that waited on 
wind and tide. Oxen 
hauled farm and 
dairy produce to the 
village market, often 
on rude sledges. 
Wagons did not come 
into general use until 
roads were built, and 
the early roads were 
often made impass- 
able by heavy rains. 
TRAVELING ON HORSEBACK There was no sys- 

tem of wireless teleg- 
raphy, no oceanic cable, no magnetic telegraph, no telephone, 
and in the beginning no post office. Many other conven- 
iences with which we are now familiar were unknown in the 
year 1700. 

Navigation Acts. — In the beginning the king, and from 
1649 to 1660 the Parliament, managed colonial affairs. 
In 1651 there was passed an act which provided that no 




TRAVEL AND TRADE 



125 



ships except those of England or her colonies could trade 
between one American port and another, engage in the 
foreign trade of the settlements, or in trade between 
England and her colonies. A second law, passed in 1660, 
provided that no goods could be brought into or sent out 
of an American port except in English or colonial vessels, 
and that certain products, such as tobacco, indigo, and 
furs, could be sent to no market except to England. It is 
clear that all these regulations were made for the benefit 
of English merchants. 

Pirates. — By the year 1700 the seas were infested with 
pirates. Success made them so bold that their crimes 
became unbearable. It was to check 
them that Lord Bellomont was 
made governor of New York. He 
commissioned William Kidd, a ca- 
pable Scotch seaman, 
to put down pii*ac3\ 
For more than a j^ear 
Kidd sailed the seas 
without finding any 
pirates. Then the 
temptation over- 
came him and he 
turned sea robber 
himself. After a 
long career of crime 
he ventured on shore at Boston, was arrested and sent 
to England for trial, where in 1701 he was hanged for 
the murder of one of liis sailors. 

Massachusetts, Virginia, and South Carolina at last re- 
solved to put an end to piracy. In 1704 there was a 
wholesale hanging of pirates in Boston. Some years later 
the notorious Stede Bonnet was taken in fight by Colonel 




CAPTURE OF STEDE BONNET 



126 SURVEY OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES 

Rhett, of Charleston. Then with twenty -three of his crew 
he was hanged. After this proof of spirit by the colonial 
authorities the seas became safer. 

Religion. — Though not a little of the early bitterness 
on questions of rehgion had passed away by the year 1700, 
quite enough of it still remained. The Episcopal Church 
was the leading one in Virginia and the Carolinas. In 
Maryland, Catholics were numerous. In Pennsylvania, 
New Jersey, and Delaware there were many Quakers. 
Lutherans and Presbyterians soon came in. There were 
many Catholics in Penn's colony, for it was always free 
from persecution. Then as now members of many creeds 
were to be found in New York. In Massachusetts the 
Puritan spirit, though less harsh than in early days, still 
frowned upon amusements such as dancing, stage plays, 
and football, all of which were forbidden. 

Education. — In 1693 there was founded at Wilhams- 
burg the college of William and Mary. The great colony 
of Virginia contained no public school, and not more than 
half a dozen private schools. As early as 1692 a Penn- 
sylvania law required parents or guardians of children to 
see that they could read and write by the time they were 
twelve years old. In the year 1749 Benjamin Franklin 
founded an academy which later became the University of 
Pennsylvania. The colony of Massachusetts Bay, as we 
have seen (p. 72), acted promptly in the matter of educa- 
tion. In 1701, at New Haven, was established a college, 
which was named in honor of Governor Elihu Yale. The 
private schools in colonial times were kept by wandering 
teachers who boarded around among the farmers or the 
village folk. Their instruction seldom went further than 
reading, writing, and arithmetic. 

Printing. — In the English colonies the first printing 
press was set up in 1630 at Cambridge. The first news- 



EDUCATIONS; AMUSEMENT 127 

paper, the Boston News Letter, did not appear till 1704. 
Fifteen years passed before one was printed in Pennsyl- 
vania and more than a quarter of a century before any 
could be found south of the Potomac. 

Amusements. — Although the Puritans frowned upon 
dancing, this pastime was regarded as harmless in New 
York, as were skating and coasting, sports brought in by 
the Dutch. Corn huskings and quilting parties were 
common in New England, but its chief events in the way 
of amusements took place on the training days, four in 
each year, when the militia drilled on the village green. 
House raisings, auctions, and picnics were the occasions 
of social gatherings in the Middle Colonies, as were horse 
racing, fox hunting, sack races, and barbecues in the South. 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — How many colonies did England possess in 
America by the year 1733? What was the total population in 1700? 
Which was the largest city? What race settled nearly all the colonies? 
What races were found in early New York? In Delaware? 

What three kinds of government were to be found in the colonies? 
As the provinces were unrepresented in Parliament, how did they 
make known to England their respective needs? Who were the Lords 
of Trade and Plantations? What is said of the importance of the 
governor? Of the council? Of the assembly? What was the unit 
of local government in New England? In the South? In the 
Middle Colonies? 

Why was New England an uncomfortable place for drunkards, 
scolds, and profane persons? Describe colonial dwellings, furniture, 
and clothing. What is said of manufactures? Of agriculture? 

Describe travel, communication, piracy. What can you tell of 
religion in colonial days? Of education? Of printing? What were 
the principal amusements in the colonies? 

References. — Alice Morse Earle, Home Life in Colonial Days, 
and Colonial Dames and Goodwives; also any careful study of the 
colonial era. 



CHAPTER X 
NEW FRANCE AND LOUISIANA 



Missionary Work in New France. — In 1(U5, on the 
invitation of Champlain, three Franciscans arrived in 

Canada. Ten years 
later, at their request, 
three Jesuits joined 
them. The two orders 
labored together until 
1629, when Quebec was 
taken by the English. 
Then all were returned 
to Europe. On the 
restoration of Canada 
to the French, three 
years later, the Jesuits 
resumed their mission- 
ary activity. 

Captivity of Father 
Jogues. — In one of his 
journeys Father Jogues 
(zhog), as well as his 
companion Rene Gou- 
pil (reh-na' goo-pel'), 
was taken prisoner by 
a roaming band of Mo- 
hawks, carried to one of their castles, or fortified villages, 
in central New York, and cruelly tortured. During his 
captivity of fifteen months he baptized many, heard a 

128 




FATHER JOGUES A CAPTIVE 



FATHER JOGUES; FATHER LE JEUNE 129 

number of confessions, and, whenever opportunity offered, 
began to instruct the natives in the elements of Christian- 
ity. Thinking on the heroism and the zeal of Father Jogues, 
the historian Bancroft^ writes: 

" Roaming through the stately forests of the Mohawk Valley, he 
wrote the name of Jesus on the bark of the trees, graved the cross, 
and entered into possession of these countries in the name of God, 
often lifting up his voice in a solitary chant. Thus did France bring 
its banner and its faith to the confines of Albany." 

Father Jogues was eventually ransomed by the Dutch of 
New Netherland ; Governor William Kieft showed him the 
greatest kindness, and among other favors found him 
passage on a ship for France. Everywhere in Europe he 
was honored for his sufferings. But once more his apos- 
tolic spirit brought him from cultured France to what was 
then barbarous Canada, where he arrived in the spring of 
1645. Having urged a mission among the terrible Iroquois, 
he was soon in New York. This time he did not, as on a 
former occasion, escape with mutilated hands, for not far 
from the scene of his earlier torture he gained the martyr's 
crown. 

Father Le Jeune. — On the 5th of July, 1632, Father Le 
Jeune (zhun), S.J., landed at Quebec.^ In the interesting 
book The Jesuits in North America, the story of Le Jeune 
and other missionaries among the Algonquins and Hurons 
is beautifully told by Francis Parkman. Interesting as it 

1 History of the United States, Vol. Ill, p. 134. 

2 His first attempt to explain by signs the doctrines of the Catholic 
Church convinced him of the necessity of learning the Algonquin language. 
For this purpose he visited the Indian encampments. In the absence of the 
men he was received by a squaw, who showed him how to roast eels by hold- 
ing them with a forlced stick over embers. At this feast, which was shared 
by several younger squaws, who used their hair lor napkins, the priest left 
no moment unemployed and by gestures and broken words kept up an active 
conversation. Though he found this method of studying the language 
very unsatisfactory, it was the best he could do at that time. 



130 NEW FRANCE AND LOUISIANA 

is, it is more closely connected with the history of Canada 
than with that of our own country. In this book, therefore, 
the subject can be touched but briefly. In the experience of 
Father Le Jeune the chief things to be noted are the diffi- 
culty of learning the Indian languages and the impossibility 
of converting bands of roving savages. 

The Huron Mission. — When the zeal of Le Jeune had 
singled him out for the position of Superior of the Society 
of Jesus, the attempt to convert the Hurons, who were 
farmers even more than hunters, was made by Fathers 
Brebeuf (bra-buf), Daniel', Davost (dah-vo'), and others. 
At the risk of their lives they made the difficult journey to 
the shores of Lake Huron. Their endeavors were beginning 
to bear fruit in many conversions when in 1649 the Iro- 
quois attacked the Huron villages and destroyed or dis- 
persed the nation, after some of the most desperate fighting 
that ever took place between Indians. 

Brebeuf and Lalemant. — Fathers Brebeuf and Lale- 
mant (lahl-mahn') were then conducting the mission at 
St. Louis. Parkman gives us a vivid account of their fate. 
Both were captured, and Brebeuf was led away and tied to 
a stake. Forgetting himself he urged his converts to suffer 
bravely. Enraged, at this the Iroquois scorched him from 
head to foot; his lower lip was cut away and a red-hot iron 
thrust down his throat. Then in his presence Lalemant 
was led to the torture. Strips of bark smeared with pitch 
were tied about his naked body. In the words of St. Paul 
he called out to his Superior: "We are made a spectacle to 
the world, to angels and to men." He then threw himself 
at Brebeuf's feet. Immediately he was seized by the Iro- 
quois, who set fire to the bark wrapped about him. From 
the midst of the flames he threw up his arms with a cry of 
supplication to Heaven. Then the torture of Father Bre- 
beuf was resumed. They hung round his neck a collar of 



HURON AND ONONDAGA MISSIONS 131 

red-hot hatchets. The fine fuiin of the priest towered 
proudly above the fiendish Iroquois. Boihng water was 
next poured slowly over his head. "We baptize you," said 
a renegade Indian, "that you may be happy in Heaven; 
for nobody can be saved without a good baptism." Even 
then the missionary showed no signs of flinching, and in a 
rage they cut from his body strips of flesh which they de- 
voured before his eyes. He was then scalped, and when he 
was nearly dead, they came in a body to drink the blood 
Avhich flowed from so valiant an enemy. His heart was torn 
out by a chief, who devoured it. Thus died Father Jean 
de Brebeuf, the hero of the Huron Mission. Some hours 
afterward the gentle Father Lalemant was brained by the 
hatchet of a warrior who had grown weary of torturing him. 

Missions in New York. — After overthrowing the Hurons, 
the Iroquois destroyed several other tribes. Meanwhile, 
for some reason that is not perfectly clear they sued for 
peace with the French. When the Onondagas asked for a 
missionary, Father Le Moyne was sent to them. At first 
he founded a mission near the mouth of the Oswego River; 
thence he pushed into the interior and in doing so discovered 
the salt springs in the vicinity of Syracuse, New York. 
Fathers Dablon (dah-blawn') and Chaumonot (sho-mo- 
no') were soon at work in the same field. In November, 
1655, was begun the building of a chapel, which, owing to 
the zeal of the natives, was finished in a day. 

The success of the mission aroused the wrath of those 
Iroquois who were still pagans, and its flourishing career of 
three years was interrupted by a renewal of war. Through 
the influence of the Indian chief Garacontie (gah-rah- 
con-tya'), however, who looked kindly upon Christianity, 
and at last became a convert, peace was restored in 1660. 
Thereafter he was a protector of the missions and a friend 
of the French. 



132 NEW FRANCE AND LOUISIANA 

Marquette and Joliet. — In 1673 the missionary Rever- 
end James Marquette (mar-kef), S. J., and the explorer 
Johet (zho-lya'), discovered the upper Mississippi River. 
They drifted with its current as far as the mouth of the 
Arkansas. Several times they landed and twice passed the 
night at Indian villages back from the river. In this there 
was the greatest danger, but the calumet, or pipe of peace, 
in every case was found a perfect protection. When they 
had reached the Arkansas River these explorers were con- 
vinced that "The Father of Waters" flows not toward 
either California or Virginia but toward the Gulf of Mexico. 
With their five companions, therefore, they began paddling 
upstream the weary way back to Lake Michigan. In cross- 
ing to that body of water they passed the site of Chicago.^ 

With a map of their discoveries and a report, Joliet 
started for Quebec with the breaking up of the ice. In the 
rapids near Montreal, his canoe was capsized, his report 
lost, and three of his companions drowned. 

La Salle. — Robert Cavalier (cah-vah-lya'), Sieur de la 
Salle (syer deh lah sahl), now determined to explore the 
Mississippi to its mouth.^ In 1679, on the upper Niagara 
River he launched the Griffin, a ship of forty-five tons. On 
it, the first large vessel ever seen on those waters, he crossed 

1 Exposure to days of heat and nights of chilling fog, together with lack 
of rest and of food, had broken the health of Father Marquette, and it was 
long before he was able to keep his promise to found a mission among the 
Illinois Indians, upon whom he had made a lasting impression. It was 
while returning from a visit to one of their villages that a great weakness 
warned him that his days were spent. On the eastern shore of Lake Michi- 
gan he saw a suitable place for ending his voyage, and there begged his 
rowers to set him on shore. This they did and made him as comfortable as 
was possible in the wilderness. The little time that remained was passed in 
prayer. His friends heard him thanking God for the manner of his approach- 
ing death. This expression of his gratitude was scarcely ended when the 
saintly Marquette went to his reward. 

2 On earlier journeys of exploration, in 1669-167L La Salle had already 
discovered the Ohio River, and probably the Illinois also. 




Father Marquette on the Mississippi River 



DISCOVERY OF THE MISSISSIPPI 



133 



'Lakes Erie, Huron, and Michigan. While his ship was re- 
turning for supplies. La Salle journeyed on to the country 
of the Illinois Indians, and on the Illinois River he built 
a fort named Creveeoeur (crav-ker, meaning Heart-break). 
After vainly waiting for the Griffin, La Salle with a few 
companions and an Indian guide started through the path- 
less wilderness for 




Montreal. After- 
ward with fresh sup- 
plies he made his 
way back to the Illi- 
nois River, but in his 
absence the garrison 
at Creveeoeur had 
risen against their 
brave commander, 
Henri de Tonty, and 
had destroyed the 
fort. Moreover, the 
Illinois Indians had 
been defeated and 
dispersed by the 
Iroquois. 

Discovery of the 
Mississippi. — After 
long wanderings, La 
Salle found Tonty 
and made ready for 
another start. With a party of Frenchmen and Indians 
from Canada, he entered the Chicago River and crossed 
the portage to the Illinois. Down that stream he and his 
companions were borne in canoes to the Mississippi, whose 
strong current at last carried them to its mouth. There on 
April 9, 1682, La Salle set up a cross, to which were nailed 



LA SALLE AT THE MOUTH OP THE MISSISSIPPI 



LA SALLE 135 

the arms of France, and took possession of all the country 
drained by the mighty river. 

Louisiana and Canada. — All the land drained by the 
Mississippi and its branches La Salle called Louisiana, in 
honor of his king, Louis XIV, while all the region drained 
by the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes was known as 
New France. But though in size these territories were 
enormous, Louisiana had as yet no white inhabitants, and 
New France (Canada) verj^ few. The condition of New 
France led Louis XIV to send out yearly one hundred young 
women, "The King's Maidens," to become the wives of 
settlers. 

Last Efforts of La Salle. — Aware of the importance of 
his discovery. La Salle returned to France for the purpose 
of collecting colonists and making a settlement on the 
Mississippi. Louis XIV assisted him in fitting out a fleet 
of four ships. With these the explorer arrived in the Gulf 
of Mexico; but his pilots missed the mouth of the great 
river and carried him to Matagorda Bay, far to the west. 
After two years of privation and distress, the courageous 
La Salle, leaving a little garrison at his fort on Matagorda 
Bay, attempted with members of his party to travel on foot 
to Canada. But he had not gone far when one of his 
treacherous followers lying in ambush shot him to death. 

After years of endeavor La Salle had met with almost 
complete failure. Like Joliet he had been educated in a 
Jesuit college and like him, too, had sought fame and for- 
tune in the Mississippi Valley. Both were renowned ex- 
plorers, but neither was sustained by the missionary zeal 
that inspired Marquette. 

New Orleans Settled (1718). — To be in advance of the 
English, a brave soldier named Iberville (e-ber-vel') built 
a stockade and made a settlement at Bilox'i on the coast of 
what is now the state of Mississippi. During more than 



136 NEW FRANCE AND LOUISIANA 

fifteen years this colony, which was soon moved near the 
site of the present city of Mobile, struggled on, but never 
prospered. Then steps were taken to plant a settlement 
on the banks of the Mississippi, and in 1718 Bienville 
(byan-vel') founded New Orleans. 

Coureurs de Bois. — The profits of the fur trade were 
great, but not every Frenchman was allowed to engage in 
the traffic. Nevertheless, many fearless young men with- 
out a license went into the wilder.ness and on their own 
account hunted, and trapped, and trnded. These dwellers 
of the woods, loiown as coureurs de bois (koo-rer' deh bwah'), 
built trading posts in distant places and often married native 
women. Not only the zeal of the Jesuits, who had hoped 
to Christianize the continent, but also the attractions of 
the fur trade, which suggested dreams of wealth, led to 
long and dangerous journeys in the wilderness. Marquette, 
Joliet, and La Salle were only three among many French- 
men who made known great inland seas and majestic rivers. 
Some of the finest examples of heroic achievement recorded 
in history are to be found in the careers of the men who 
revealed the extent and the resources of the American 
wilderness. 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — Give an account of Father Jogues; also of 
Father Le Jeune. Tell the story of Brebeuf and Lalemant. What 
was the achievement of Marquette and Joliet? Relate the exploits 
of La Salle. Who founded New Orleans? When was it founded? 
At that time there were eleven British colonies on the North American 
mainland; name them. 

References. — Parkman, The Jesuits in North America; Thwaites, 
The Colonies (Epochs of American History, Vol. I) ; The Jesuit Rela- 
tions, edited and translated by Thwaites. 



CHAPTER XI 
THE INTERCOLONIAL WARS 

It is not possible in this book fully to state the 
causes or to describe the progress of the four intercol- 
onial wars, or wars between England and France in 
America, which extended from 1689 to 1763. The first 
three were due to wars in Europe, but the fourth and 
last began in America. 

King William's War. — In 1685, as we have seen, James 
II, a Roman Catholic, became king of England, but his 
subjects preferred for their ruler a foreign prince who was a 
Protestant. Moreover, James was greatly lacking in tact. 
When Englishmen, therefore, invited William of Orange to 
be their king, James went to France, where he was sup- 
ported by Louis XIV. These events led to a war between 
the two powers in 1689. 

The Massacre of Lachine. — Between the frontiers of 
New France and those of New England were the Abnaki 
(ab-nah'ke) Indians. These as well as the tribes of Canada 
were on the side of the French, while some tribes remained 
neutral.^ However, in central New York were the Iroquois, 
who, because of Champlain's attack (page 41), were bitter 
enemies of the French. This feeling had long shown itself 
in destructive wars between Indians and white men. At 
last, during the winter of 1687-1688, peace appeared to be 

1 Thirteen years before this, during King Phihp's War (page 82), 
Major Waldron had treacherously seized at Dover, New Hampshire, three 
hundred unsuspecting Indians and shipped most of them to Boston to be 
sold into slavery. The memory of the deed was still fresh. On June 27, 
1689, Penacook Indians took the town, murdered Waldron with twenty 
others, and carried twenty-nine into captivity. 

137 



IMS 



rill'; ixri'iKcoLoNiAi- waks 



(\st-;il)lishc(l l>(>(\v(>('n llic I'liMicli :iiul tli(> Iioiiuois. I?u( iii- 
stond llio rn(>s of wMr wow rekindled l»y lli(> \vil\' inacluMM- 
tions of "(he l\;i(," m Union chiiM", iind \vtM(> fanned 1>\ tlu" 
inlluenci* of IamsKm- jind others in N(>\v \'ork. 

(>n lli»> ni!i;lit of .\n.i!;ns(> 5, KiS'), wilhonl ye( knowint; (hat 

Ihei'e was war Itetween l'';n<^laiid and I'Vanee, I 100 lro(|nois 

siUaitly paddled to Montreal Island 

in a stoi in of rain and liail. St(>all liil\ 

they l(>ft their eanoes and noiselessly 

^^J^^^f'x.j;, snn'oundi>d (>\(My house in the slei>|)- 

At a si,i;;nal, torch juui tomahawk 
4^ heiran their dr»\ulful work. 'Two 
hundr(>d men, women, ;ind children 
Jf \\(M(> l)nl('luM(>d. 'rh(> lr(»(iiiois occu- 
pi(>d part of the ishuid till C'juuula 
was in ttaror. 

Massacre of Schenectady, Tlu^ 
silii.ation retinin'd a. man of action, 
and one was found in (!o\iMnor 
I'ronten.'ic. l{ous(ul to d(\s[)eration, 
' v«/^^ •''>' \(Mer;in no\t>rnor rt\solviul to 
"Li'-y ' jL incv'Awr the ircniuois l\v attacks on 
^^^ the iMi.nlish. In the winter of l(>SO- 

1()00 Uv iornuMl on the l>t.. l-awitMU'i> 

KIIONl'KNAe • . 1, 1 

Ki\iM- tlu»>e war parties ol I' i-ench 
and Indi.'ins. 'The band which asstMuhlcHl at Mt>ntr(vil was 
(o mjirch aiiainsli Ntnv ^'ork; th;it ^.atluM'cHl .at 'rhrt>(> Ivix'crs 
\\;is instructt^d to w.aste th(> fronti(>r iA' New Hampshire; 
while a force fiom (^U(>l)ec was to ra.\ai^«* the st>( Ikantails of 
Maine. 

'rht> party from Montrt^al started southw.ard in mid- 
wintt>r. In a wild storm in l'\>hruar.\, lt>*M). tlu\v made 
their way on snowsluxvs and at midnight entiaed the forti- 




KIN(^ \V1I>I.IAMS WAl? 130 

lied \ ill;i|i;(' of Scliciicclndy , llic nearest ol' the lOii^lisli oiil.- 
posls (map, i)a|!,{' I 15), and iiiassacicd six! v-( luce of its 
iiilial)ila,ii(s. Al llic reciucsl, ol" the Kn-iicli some wcit' spared 
by I lie Indians and a, lew, who eseajxvj liaJl-clol lied, ni;ide 
Uieir way U) All)a,ny, ,si\((>en miles away. Alter hiirnin^ 
[he viiiajje, the war party hurried haeic to ( 'luiadji with their 
prisonei's and hooty. 

Salmon Falls and Portland. - In March. I^'rontennc's 
second war parl.\' fell upon Salmon l'a,lls, near Dover, New 
Hampshire, laid the vilhi^e in ashes, killed .ihout thirty, ;uid 
cai'i'ied into (he wilderness uhout thirty prisoners. Then 
unitinj; with the third party tlu^y atta(^ked and took l'\)rt 
Loyal on the site of Portland, Maine. There they killed or 
led into captivity most of the inhahit.ants. 

End of the War. Akirnied a,t the activity of ( lovernor 
I'^rontenjic, and his Indian allies, a eongross was held in New 
York. It was there a.Kree(i (o un(l(M'tak(> the comiuest of 
C'anada,. A New Muf^Iaiid (leet, with a few lumdred militia, 
under William Phips, had already saile(l lor i'orl, Koyal, 
which was caplui'ed and pillap;(Ml. Tialcr in the year, I'hips 
with a. Il(>et and .about Iavo thousand mililja aj)p(>ai'e{| Ix^l'ore 
Qu(^l)ec and dem;ui(led its surrender. l''ront(Mia,(^ rel'usi>d 
and skillfully delended the pl;u'e durinji; a, sei^c^ of eiji;ht 
days, when IMii])s and his expedition .sailed hack to Boston. 

The I'reneh recovered Port iioyal and thereafter th(> 
lOn^li^li ehielly confined them.selves to the defense of their 
settlements. The treaty of Ryswi(!k, l()!)7, |)ut an end t,o 
the us(>less slaughter. A few years Later, the lro([uois madci 
p(>a('e with the I'^hmk^Ii and their allies. 

Queen Anne's War. - It was agreed, by tlui terms of 
the treaty of Ryswick, that Louis XTV would recognize 
William III as the lawful ruler of England, but in 1701 
King .lames II died, and his son was acknowledu;ed by tlu^ 
French king ;is " .hunes III," t,he rightful king of Mn^l.and. 



'140 THE INTERCOLONIAL WARS 

For this and other reasons England in 1702 declared war 
upon France. The struggle in America is known as Queen 
Anne's War, from the name of the English queen who suc- 
ceeded WilHam. 

The War in the South. — As Spain was now allied with 
France there was war between the English colony of Caro- 
lina and the Spanish colony of Florida, and unsuccessful 
attacks were made on St. Augustine and Charleston. Dur- 
ing the war, however. Colonel Moore, of South Carolina, 
with a force of English and Indians, succeeded in destroy- 
ing St. Marks and other missions of the Apalachee Indians. 
The Franciscans who directed the missions went out to 
beg for mercy, but were cruelly put to death. Hundreds 
of the Christian Indians were massacred and fourteen hun- 
dred seized by Colonel Moore. Of these some were sold 
into slavery in the West Indies, while others were kept to 
cultivate his fields.^ 

The War in the North. — A small band of New England 
colonists attacked and pillaged a French-Indian house on 
the Penobscot River in Maine, and the Indians of the East 
were easily aroused to war. In February, 1704, the village 
of Deerfield, Massachusetts, was raided by French and In- 
dians; forty-nine of the English were killed and about one 
hundred more made prisoners. For the second time Haver- 
hill was attacked and partly destroyed. 

Capture of Port RoyaL — Two fruitless attempts were 
made by the English to take Port Royal, but in a third 
attack in 1710 it was captured and in honor of the queen 
named Annapolis. Acadia was renamed Nova Scotia. 
Encouraged by the conquest of a province, a great fleet 

I During the progress of this war the Tuscarora Indians fell upon the 
settlers of North Carolina, but in 1713 were overpowered by the assistance 
of a party from South Carolina. This reverse led the survivors of the 
tribe to move northward into New York and join the Five Nations of their 
Iroquois kinsmen, thus making the famous confederacy of the Six Nations. 



QUEEN ANNE'S WAR; KING GEORGE'S WAR 141 

was prepared in England for the capture of Quebec. At 
the same time an army marched against Montreal. Dis- 
aster having overtaken the fleet, the commander of the land 
force returned to Albany. 

Territorial Changes. — ■ At last the war was ended in 1713 
by the treaty of Utrecht (u'trekt). By its provisions France 
was forced to give up to Great Britain the country known 
as Acadia, the island of Newfoundland, and all the territory 
drained by the rivers flowing into Hudson Bay.' These 
losses were counterbalanced by the acquisition of Louisiana 
(page 135). 

King George's War. — The third of the French and 
English intercolonial wars lasted from 1744 to 1748. In 
1745 Sir William Pepperell, of Massachusetts, with an 
army of 3000 and the assistance of a fleet, took the strong 
fortress of Louisburg, which the French had constructed at 
great expense. In 1748, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 
(shah-pel'), the war was brought to an end. All conquests 
were restored. This arrangement, which displeased New 
England, gave Louisburg back to the French, 

The French in the Ohio Valley. — At this time the French 
began systematically to strengthen their hold on the Missis- 
sippi Valley. As early as 1749 a party of soldiers under 

■ la tlie course of Queen Anne's War an effort was made to persuade 
the Abnaki Indians to remain neutral, but this did not succeed. FaiUng in 
their object, the English colonists resolved to punish the tribe and especially 
its spiritual guide, Father Sebastian Rasle (rahl) , who was suspected by them 
of encouraging the Indians in their unfriendly feeling for the New England 
settlers. In 1705 they burned his church and the village of Norridgewock, 
on the Kennebec River. Everything, including his papers and even his 
inkstand, was carried off. Though representing the toil of years, his Abnaki 
dictionary, still preserved at Harvard University, was made a part of the 
plunder. In 1724, also a season of peace, a party of English and Mohawks, 
during the absence of many Abnaki warriors, surprised the little village. 
The aged priest rushed from his chapel to assist his people, but after a 
volley he was found dead at the foot of the mission cross. Seven chiefs 
shared his fate. 



142 



THE INTERCOLONIAL WARS 



Celeron de Bienville (sal-rawn' deh byan-vel') left Montreal 
to take possession of the Ohio country. On a branch of 
the Allegheny River, the men were drawn up and the King 
of France was proclaimed sovereign of all the lands drained 
by the Ohio. The ceremony was completed by burying a 
lead plate at the foot of a tree. By the French these events 

were generally recorded by 



a notary. An inscription on 
the plate stated the claim 
of French ownership.^ 

The party of Celeron 
also buried plates at other 
places along the Ohio. 
Two bands of English 
traders found in the coun- 
try were requested to in- 
form their governors that 
if their people persisted in 
coming, it would be neces- 
sary to expel them by 
force. The English entirely 
disregarded this warning. 
Aware of what the English were doing, the French in 
1752 built three log forts on the route from Lake Erie to the 
Allegheny River: one at Presque Isle, where the city of 
Erie now stands; one twenty miles inland, at Le Boeuf ; and 
one at Venango on the Allegheny. 

Dinwiddle's Protest. — Alarmed by the tidings that the 
French were building forts in a region claimed by England, 
Governor Dinwiddle, of Virginia, sent a messenger request- 

1 Translated into English the inscription on the plate read: "We have 
placed this plate here as a memorial of the establishment of our power in 
the territory which is claimed by us on the Ohio River, and throughout its 
tributaries to its source, and confirmed by the treaties of Ryswick, Utrecht, 
and Aix-la-Chapelle." 




WASHINGTON AT FORT LE BOEUF 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 143 

ing their withdrawal, but his envoy became frightened and 
returned. He then selected for the mission George Wash- 
ington, adjutant general of the colony. ' 

The business of Washmgton was to find the French com- 
mander, deliver the governor's letter, and request an answer. 
At the same time he was to learn the location and the strength 
of the new forts. In midwinter Washington made the 
journey in safety to Fort Le Boeuf, delivered Governor 
Dinwiddle's note, and returned with a report of the polite 
but firm refusal of the French officer to withdraw. 

The French and Indian War 

English Driven from the Ohio. — In 1754 Dinwiddle 
ordered the erection of a fort at the forks of the Ohio, a 
point guarding the entrance to the valley. On April 17, 
while engaged on this work, the English were driven away 
by a party of French and Indians, who planned and com- 
pleted a post named Fort DuQuesne (kan) in honor of their 
governor. 

Great Meadows. — Meanwhile the governor of Virginia 
was not inactive. He sent Washington, who had satis- 
factorily performed his first pubhc service, toward the 
Ohio with soldiers. Hearing of the expulsion of the English 
from the forks of the Ohio, Washington began marching in 
that direction. He was told by an Indian that a French 
force was concealed close at hand. On his approach next 
day the French flew to arms and in a sharp fight that fol- 
lowed, JumonviUe, their commander, and nine of his men 
were killed. 

After this skirmish Washington built at Great Meadows 
an earthwork which he named Fort Necessity. Thence he 
resumed his westward march, but on hearing that a strong 

' Washington's brothers were members of the Ohio Company, which had 
been chartered by Great Britain for trade and settlement in the Ohio Valley. 



144 THE INTERCOLONIAL WARS 

French force was approaching, he returned to the protection 
of the fort. There he was attacked, and on July 4, 1754, 
after a brave resistance, was forced to surrender and 
retreat. 

Albany Convention. — From what has been said it is 
clear that the westward expansion of England's colonics 
was at an end unless they could break the chain of French 
forts which confined them to the country east of the AUe- 
ghenies. To organize for this purpose the Lords of Trade 
ordered the holding at Albany of a convention to attach to 
the English cause the Six Nations of Iroquois Indians. 
Only seven of the thirteen provinces sent delegates to this 
congress. 

In the Albany convention Benjamin Franklin offered a 
famous plan for the union and government of England's 
colonies, but while it was accepted by the delegates it was 
rejected by the colonial legislatures and opposed in Eng- 
land by the Lords of Trade and Plantations. 

Braddock's Expedition. — In 1755 the British govern- 
ment sent Major-General Edward Braddock to take com- 
mand of their forces in America. At a meeting of the 
colonial governors, held at Alexandria, Virginia, it was 
decided to send several expeditions against French forts. 
One of them, under the command of General Braddock 
himself, made its way toward Fort DuQuesne. When he was 
within eight miles of that post, July 9, 1755, he suddenly 
came face to face with an army of French and Indians. 
The enemy, instantly vanishing behind trees and bushes, 
poured a merciless fire into the ranks of the British. As 
Braddock refused to allow his men to fight in Indian fashion, 
they stood huddled together in groups, splendid targets for 
the French and their allies. At last the extent of his losses 
compelled him to order a retreat, and had it not been for 
Washington and his Virginians the British regulars would 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 



145 











WARS WITH THE FRENCH 



NORTH AMERICA IN 17C3 



probabl}^ have perished to a man. Wounded in the battle, 
Braddock died soon afterward. 

Other Failures in 1755. • — General Shirley, with another 
expedition, set out from Albany to take Fort Niagara. But 
when he arrived at Oswego, he received tidings of Brad- 
dock's disaster and moved no farther. A third expedition, 
led by William Johnson, was to have taken Crown Point on 
Lake Champlain. It advanced to the head of Lake George, 
where it defeated a French force under General Dieskau. 
But instead of going on, General Johnson remained at Lake 
George, where he built Fort William Henry. 

The Exile of the Acadians (1755). —Meanwhile some 
Massachusetts militia were sent to Acadia, most of which 
for forty years had been a British possession with a French 



146 THE INTERCOLONIAL WARS 

population. The military value of this campaign was 
slight, but for other reasons the results were singularly 
important. On June 1, 1755, a landing was made and after 
a httle fighting the French forts on tlie border were captured. 
To the Acadian people the conquerors offered the oath of 
allegiance to King George II, but this they refused to take. 

It was then decided to remove the Acadian population. 
Readers of Evangeline are familiar with the story of Grand 
Pre. From that point, before December, 1755, there were 
shipped 2100 men, women, and children. From Fort 
Edward, Annapolis, and elsewhere other thousands at the 
point of the bayonet were forced to bid adieu to fields and 
homes. In all, some 6000 human beings, landless, house- 
less, and friendless, were driven forth into an unsympathetic 
world. Nowhere were they welcomed by the English 
colonists. In time many of these wanderers found their 
way to Louisiana; a few returned to Acadia. 

Arrival of Montcalm. — In 1756 war was declared in 
Europe. The conflict there, known as the Seven Years' 
War, kept French armies employed at home. The king of 
France, however, sent over to Canada the Marquis de 
Montcalm with 1200 men. The new commander won over 
most of the Indians to the side of France, captured and 
burned Oswego (1756) and Fort Wilham Henry (1757), and 
threatened to send a strong fleet against New England. 

Surrender of Louisburg. — In the year 1758 Louisburg, 
which had cost $10,000,000 to fortify, was compelled to 
yield to a joint military and naval force under General 
Amherst and Admiral Boscawen. In the same year Wash- 
ington took Fort DuQuesne, which in honor of the great 
English statesman was renamed Fort Pitt. 

Repulse at Ticonderoga. — On July 8, 1758, General Aber- 
cromby, with an army estimated at 15,000, made a furious 
assault on the strong post of Ticonderoga. With 3100 



THE FALL OF QUEBEC 



147 



men Montcalm defended the fort. The battle raged all 
day in front of Ticonderoga, its outlying breastworks, and 
its effective defense of fallen trees. When the British 
withdrew, under cover of night, they had lost almost 2000 
in killed, wounded, and missing. The French commander 
reported a loss of 377. 

The Fall of Quebec. — The task of taking Ticonderoga 
as well as Crown Point was then assigned to General Am- 










*X ^ '^"^*^ 



'rl r=*- - 




|c5^fetf^S"::gJ!;S^^ 



QUEBEC IN 1759 

herst, who slowly forced the French to give way. In the 
meantime General Wolfe had attacked and with his cannon 
had destroyed the lower town of Quebec. Montcalm, 
whose skill and courage had been proved, held the upper 
town with a large army. 

On the 13th of September, 1759, General Wolfe with 
9000 men had found a winding wa\', both difficult and dan- 
gerous, that led him during the night to the Plains of Abra- 
ham, near Quebec. The last of the English had barely 
climbed the heights when the French rushed to the attack. 



148 THE liNTERCOLONlAL WARS 

Both commanders were mortally wounded in the bloody 
battle that followed, but the victory was with the British. 
To the memory of Montcalm and Wolfe, Canada has erected 
a monument bearmg this inscription: "Valor gave a united 
death, History a united fame, Posterity a united monument." 
Montreal was taken by General Amherst in the course of 
the next year (1760), and the war in Canada quickly came 
to an end. 

Terms of Peace. — During the progress of the war Spain 
was persuaded to go in on the side of France. In the 3'ear 
1762 British forces captured both Havana and Manila. A 
treaty of peace was signed at Paris on Februarj^ 10, 1763. 
In return for the restoration of Cuba, Spain gave Florida 
to Great Britain, while the Philippines were given back to 
Spain on the promise of a ransom. 

To compensate Spain for her loss France gave her New 
Orleans and all that part of Louisiana west of the Missis- 
sippi. To England she ceded everything except New 
Orleans that she claimed to the east of that river; also all 
her possessions- in Canada except two small islands near 
NcAvfoundland. In a word, the end of the French and 
Indian War found France stripped of her North American 
possessions. 

The Proclamation Line. — Having thus won an immense 
territory, England had to take measures for its government. 
A proclamation of 1763 fixed the boundaries of Quebec,^ 
and from that province southward it drew a line "beyond 
the sources of the rivers which flow into the Atlantic from 
the west and northwest." Beyond this limit no colonial 
governor was to grant land. For a time the tracts thus cut 
off were to be reserved for the Indians. 

Besides defining the limits of Quebec and setting apart a 

* The southern boundary of Quebec became the northern limit of New 
York and New England. 



PONTIAC'S WAR 149 

vast Indian reservation, the proclamation of 1763 created 
two new provinces, namely, East Florida and West Florida. 
Pontiac's War. — Though the Canadians were weary of 
w^ar, they did not object to an Indian attack on the English. 
In 1762, before the treaty of Paris, Pontiac, a chief of the 
Ottawas, sent his messengers with bloodstained tomahawks 
among all the tribes from the Ohio to the Upper Lakes and 
thence through all the lands to the mouth of the Mississippi. 
In 1763 the bands of the crafty chief attacked Detroit. 
Le Boeuf and Venango were surprised and burned, Presque 
Isle was captured, and the Pennsylvania frontier laid waste. 
Between the mouth of the Oswego and the Strait of Mack- 
inaw the Indians took from the English ten of their fourteen 
posts. During 1763 and 1764, however, Colonel Bouquet 
with a British army defeated them in many engagements, 
and the Indian warfare, which at one time threatened to 
sweep off every white man to the west of the Susquehanna, 
suddenly ceased. 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — Describe the massacre of Lachine. How 
did Canada retaliate ? 

Give the chief events of Queen Anne's War. When and by what 
treaty was it ended? Describe the death of Father Rasle. 

What was the chief English victory of King George's War? 

What is said of the French occupation of the Ohio Valley? What 
led to the French and Indian War? 

Give an account of Braddock's defeat. Tell the story of the exile 
of the Acadians. What was the effect of the coming of Montcalm ? 
Describe his defeat of the English at Ticonderoga. How and when 
did General Wolfe take Quebec ? What was the extent of the French 
losses? 

Describe Pontiac's War. 

References. — Sloane, The French War and the Revolution; Thwaites, 
The Colonies (Epochs of American History Vol. I); Fisher, The 
Colonial Era; Edouard Richard, Acadia. 



CHAPTER XII 
CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 

Public Debt of England. — Though England had won 
the French and Indian War, from the time of King WiUiam, 
1689, her pubhc debt had been growing steadily until in 
1763 it amounted to £140,000,000.1 This sum was thought 
to be too great to be paid by one small island. Some 
statesmen believed that future expenses should be borne 
by all parts of the empire. The American colonies, it 
was thought, would pay their share of any tax laid by 
Parliament. 

Taxes and Troops. — The new system included a strict 
enforcement of the Navigation Acts and a purpose of sending 
to America a body of 10,000 British troops for whose sup- 
port it was decided to provide, at least in part, by a tax on 
the colonies. From their agent in London the people of 
Massachusetts had heard of the intention of England. 
Accordingly a Boston town meeting appointed a committee 
to prepare instructions for the agent. 

The Boston Instructions. — In its report the committee 
just mentioned declared: " If taxes are laid upon us in any 
shape without our having a legal representation where they 
are laid, are we not reduced from the character of free sub- 
jects to the miserable state of tributary slaves? ... we 
further desire you to use your endeavors that their weight 
may be added to the weight of this province that by the 
united application of all who are aggrieved, all may obtain 
redress." 

In these instructions is found the first public denial of the 

» This would be equivalent to about $700,000,000. 
150 



THE STAIMP ACT 151 

right of Parliament to tax the colonies without their consent 
and the first hint of a union to secure a redress of grievances. 
In December preceding, Patrick Henry had shocked the 
feelings of Virginians when he declared that a king who 
disallows good laws, from being the father of his people 
" degenerates into a tyrant and forfeits all right to 
obedience." 

The Stamp Act. — When it became known in America 
that there was in England a purpose to tax the colonies, 
Americans offered to tax themselves for their share of public 
expense, but as the prime minister had little faith in their 
methods, he resolved to prepare a revenue bill of his own, 
known as the Stamp Act. About the only opposition in 
Parliament to its passage came from members of Irish birth 
or from those who had estates in the West Indies or in 
Ireland. Colonel Barre spoke eloquently against it and 
described the Americans as " Sons of Liberty," a name by 
which the opponents of the Stamp Act soon came to be 
known. In March, 1765, the l)ill V)ecame a law.^ 

The new law, which was to go into effect on November 1, 
1765, provided that all bills, deeds, notes, mortgages, mar- 
riage certificates, and other documents were to be made out 
on stamped paper or on paper to which stamps were affixed. 
Pamphlets and newspapers also were to be printed on 
stamped sheets. In value the stamps ranged from three 
pence to ten pounds. Money from this source was not to 
be sent to England, but was to be expended in the colonies 
for the support of British troops there. 

American Opposition. — Virginia was the first to declare 
her opposition. At that time Patrick Henry, perhaps the 
greatest of colonial orators, was a member of its House of 
Burgesses. His fiery eloquence caused that body to adopt 

1 When the act was signed, King George III was suffering from the first 
of several attacks of insanity. 



152 



CAUSES OF THE P.EVOLUTIONARY WAR 



a set of resolutions which stated that by two royal charters 
the people of Virginia had been declared entitled to all the 
rights of Englishmen born within the realm of England, 
that one of these rights was that of being taxed by their own 
Assembly; and that without its consent, they were not 
bound to obey any law taxing them. 

In answer to the call of Massachusetts, delegates from 
nine of the thirteen colonies met at New York in October, 
1765, and framed a "Declaration of 
Rights and Grievances of the Colo- 
nists in America." To support this 
declaration many merchants entered 
into an agreement to buy no more 
British goods until the Stamp Act 
was repealed. 

The distributors of stamps were 
appointed late in the summer, l)ut 
before November every one of them 
had been forced by the colonists to 
resign his office. In all the New 
England colonies there was rioting. 
In Boston, Oliver, the stamp agent, was burned in effigj-. 
There was disorder in New York, in New Jersey, and in 
Pennsylvania, and rioting at AnnapoHs, Maryland. As the 
1st of November drew near, stamps were carefully sought 
out and when found were given to the flames. In a little 
while there were neither stamps nor men to sell them. 

Repeal of the Stamp Act. — '- As American merchants had 
stopped importing British wares, the merchants of England 
found goods accumulating on their hands. This was not 
all, for returning ships brought back cargoes that they had 
taken to sell in the colonies. By the end of the year the 
signs of distress in the manufacturing cities of England were 
so marked that Parliament was forced to repeal the hated 




PATRICK HENRY 



THE TOWNSHEND ACTS 153 

law. The repeal, which took place in March, 17G0, was 
coupled with a measure known as the Declaratory Act, in 
which Parliament declared that it had the right to tax the 
colonies if it was deemed necessary. Nevertheless, the 
repeal of the Stamp Act was followed by general rejoicing. 

The Townshend Acts. — In the year 1767 there was be- 
gun a quarrel that was destined to continue until the British 
Empire was divided. The cause of the new alarm was the 
passage of the Townshend Acts. One of these provided 
for laying taxes on tea, glass, paints, paper, and painters' 
colors imported into the colonies. These duties were not 
heavy, but they were laid l)y Parliament, a bod}^ in which 
America was not represented. Also the money raised was 
to pay the salaries of colonial judges and thus make them 
independent of the colonial legislatures. 

The assembly of Massachusetts sent a letter to each of 
the other colonial legislatures urging them to unite and to 
consult about their rights. Once more unsold goods were 
returned to England because both merchants and people had 
renewed their agreement to buy no British merchandise. 

Legislatures Dissolved. — The Massachusetts legislature 
was ordered to recall its letter to the other coloHies. This, 
by a large majority, the members refused to do. In ojapos- 
ing the Townshend Acts, Massachusetts was supported by 
Virginia, whose stand was influenced by Patrick Henr}- and 
George Washington. The House of Burgesses passed re- 
solutions condemning the new system of taxation and 
upholding the right of the colonies to petition the Crown. 

The legislature of Massachusetts was dissolved by its 
governor for refusing to recall its letter; that of New York 
for failing to provide for British troops, and that of Virginia 
for complaining of the treatment of New York. This 
frequent suspension of legislatures greatly interfered with 
public business. 



154 



CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 



The Boston "Massacre." — In 1768 two regiments of 
British troops were landed in Boston to assist in enforcing 
the Townshend Acts. The legislature refused to provide 
them with either quarters or supplies; the people disliked 
their presence. On the night of March 5, 1770, a false 
alarm of fire brought many people into the streets. Find- 
ing a soldier on duty, they amused themselves by taunting 
and finally striking him. A rumor that this sentinel had 




THE BOSTON " MASSACRE " 

been killed brought in haste a corporal with six soldiers. 
The crowd greeted the soldiers with cries of "Lobsters! 
Bloody-backs! Rascals!" Snowballs at first and then 
stones were thrown. In the excitement one of the soldiers 
discharged a gun. The others followed his example. When 
the firing had ceased, it was found that five of the rioters 
lay on the ground dead or dying. Half a dozen others were 
severely wounded. 

In the trial which followed, two of the soldiers were con- 



BOSTON MASSACRE; OTHER COLLISIONS 155 

victed of manslaughter, branded, and dismissed. On the 
day after the shooting a town meeting held at Faneuil Hall 
expressed its indignation at the conduct of the troops and 
appointed iSamuel Adams to call on Governor Hutch- 
inson and request their removal. It was not, however, 
until Adams assumed an attitude of menace and pointed 
to the angry thousands who had sent him that the Governor 
yielded and ordered the troops removed from Boston to an 
island in the harbor. 

Other Collisions. — In the following year there was a 
pitched battle between American and British forces on the 
Alamance in North CaroUna.^ A third colHson, off the 
coast of Rhode Island in 1772, resulted in the destruction 
of the British warship Gaspee.- 

^ In North Carolina justice was uncertain, and lawsuits expensive. 
This condition forced the peaceful farmers to organize and to protect them- 
selves. But no reform in government followed their protests. They were 
accused on slight pretexts and their leaders were cast into prison without 
trial. This sort of tyranny led to the organization of a body of 1200 armed 
men, whose leaders tried to meet Governor Trj^-on, commanding a disci- 
plined force about as large. He refused to discuss their grievances and 
demanded unconditional surrender. Then followed. May 16, 1771, a 
bloody battle on the Alamance in which discipline prevailed where courage 
was equal. Twenty colonists were killed and many more captured ; twenty 
of the king's soldiers were wounded and nine killed. In all, seven of the 
colonists were hanged for taking part in the outbreak; one was put to 
death without trial. With revenge in their hearts many of the impoverished 
frontiersmen crossed the mountains into the Tennessee country. 

2 Trade with the West Indies was an important source of wealth to all 
New England. For the timber, the fish, and the cattle that her captains 
took thither they brought back cargoes of sugar and molasses. In 1733 an 
act of Parliament placed a duty on sugar and molasses imported from any 
but British colonies, and in 1764 the act was renewed in a form greatly to 
the disadvantage of the colonists. The number of revenue officers was 
increased, and to assist them in enforcing the law warships patrolled the 
harbors and the coast. In a short time property of the value of £3000 
was swept into prize courts. If the law of 1764 was to be carefully enforced, 
it would destroy the trade with the French West Indies, for if the French 
planters could not sell their sugar and molasses, they would not buy fish. 
The British warship Gaspee watched the coast of Rhode Island for smug- 



156 CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 

Duty on Tea Retained. — On the very day of the Boston 
" Massacre " a motion was made in Parliament to repeal 
all the taxes laid by the Townshend Acts except that on 
tea. Soon they were repealed; but the tax of 3 pence a 
pound on tea, payable at American ports, was kept merely 
to show that Parliament had a right to tax the col- 
onies. An arrangement of Parliament enabled Americans 
to buy tea cheaper from the British East India Com- 
pany than they could get the smuggled article from 
Holland, but they refused to purchase it because the 
price concealed a tax. In other words, they were con- 
tending for a principle. 

In 1773 cargoes of tea were sent to Philadelphia, New 
York, Charleston, and Boston, consigned to agents of the 
East India Company. A mass meeting in Philadelphia 
denounced the new attempt at taxation and demanded 
the resignation of the Company's agents. They promptly 
complied. The tea ship was stopped in the Delaware and 
in a few days its captain sailed it back to England. In 
Charleston the agents resigned, and the tea was landed and 
stored away by the customs officers. In New York the 
Sons of Liberty secured the resignation of the agents, while 
bands of " Mohawks " ordered the harbor pilots not to 
bring the tea ship nearer than Sandy Hook. Thereupon 
the vessel returned to England. 

The "Boston Tea Party." — -In Boston the Company's 
agents refused to resign, but the shipowners were per- 
suaded not to land the tea. However, if the cargoes were 

glers. In the line of his duty its captain destroyed property of the colonists. 
On the 9th of June, 1772, the daring skipper of the Providence packet, 
which the Gaspee had intended to overhaul and search, led the king's ship 
into shoal water, where she ran aground. On the following night a party 
of disguised men boarded her, and, after a conflict in which her commander 
was wounded, seized and landed him and his crew, at the same time setting 
fire to his vessel. 



THE INTOLERABLE ACTS OF 1774 



157 



not discharged within twenty days, the customhouse officials 
could legally seize and unload the ships. Having once 
entered port, the vessels could not leave without clearance 
papers from the collector or a pass from the governor. 

On the 16th of December, 1773, seven thousand people 
attended town meeting. The owner of the fii'st of the tea 
ships to arrive in the harbor had gone to the country home 
of the governor to get a pass for his vessel, but at night he 
returned without it. As the revenue officials would soon 
visit the ship, something had to 
be done at once. It was there- 
fore decided that a small party 
disguised as Indians should board 
the ships, break open the chests, 
and spill the tea into the harbor. 
This was done without any inter- 
ruption. Such was the celebrated 
"Boston Tea Party." 

The Intolerable Acts of 1774. 
— When the destruction of the 
tea became known in England, 
angry speeches were made in 
Parliament, and some of the more 
extreme membei*s urged harsh 
treatment for Boston. The King 
resolved to make of Massachusetts, an old offender, an 
example for the other provinces. Lord North, who be- 
came prime minister in 1770, prepared several meas- 
ures of punishment which were passed by the Parlia- 
ment, although Fox, Burke, and a few others ably 
opposed them. 

The first of the so-called intolerable acts was the Boston 
Port Bill. This closed the harbor of Boston to all trade 
until the owners had been paid for the tea that was de- 




EDMUND BURKE 



158 CLAUSES OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 

stroycd, and until the king was satisfied that the city would 
obey the laws.' 

The second of these acts practically set aside the charter 
of Massachusetts. Members of the council, formerly 
elected, could under the new law be appomted by the king 
and at his pleasure removed. Except for the election of 
officers town meetings could not be held without the con- 
sent of the governor. 

Under the third act magistrates, revenue officers, or other 
officials indicted in Massachusetts for capital offenses, such 
as murder and treason, were to be tried either in Nova 
Scotia or in Great Britain. This was the "Transportation 
Bill." 

Still another act required the colony of Massachusetts to 
provide quarters for British soldiers. 

By the fifth of the intolerable acts the province of Quebec 
was extended to the Ohio River. French law was restored 
in that province, and the Catholic faith established. The 
English people regarded French law as despotic, and the 
"mother country " gravely offended the Puritans by grant- 
ing to the Catholics of Quebec full toleration in matters of 
religion. 

Political Parties. — When George III came to the throne 
in 1760, he depended for the success of his plans upon the 
Tories, while the friends of America were almost certain to 
be found among the Whigs.^ Those in America who re- 
mained loyal to King George III came to be known as 
Tories or Loyalists. The colonial patriots were some- 
times called Whigs. 

' Edmund Burke, who delivered on this occasion one of his greatest 
speeches, said that this law punished the innocent with the guilty. Marble- 
head, a port near Salem, was made the location of the customhouse. 

2 It is not strictly correct to divide the British people into Whigs and 
Tories, for there were numerous factions, all striving for places and speculat- 
ing in American lands. 



FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS 159 

Committees of Correspondence. — Up to 1772 most of the 
colonists thought of only the repeal of unfair laws. Though 
Samuel Adams did not overlook so desirable an object, he 
was thinldng of something far greater. By 1772, if not 
earlier, he was convinced that nothing short of complete 
independence would satisfy the people. Looking to that 
end, he perfected a system by which even the most distant 
towns could be informed of the rights of the colonies, and of 
the nature of every dispute with King George or his Parlia- 
ment. The people of Massachusetts were made acquainted 
with events through a "committee of correspondence." 
Virginia saw the merits of the plan and at once appointed 
committees to correspond with the other colonies. 

First Continental Congress. — In May, 1774, General 
Gage, with more soldiers, came to Boston to act as com- 
mander of the British forces and as military governor of 
Massachusetts. When Virginia heard of the Boston Port 
Bill, its legislature ordered the day on which the act was to 
take effect observed as a fast day and a day of prayer. For 
this the governor dissolved the assembly, but the members 
met in a room near by and voted to call a congress. About 
fifty-five delegates, representmg all the colonies except 
Georgia, met at Philadelphia on September 5, 1774, as the 
First Continental Congress. That body had for its object 
" the union of Great Britain and the colonies on a constitu- 
tional foundation." A petition for the redress of grievances 
was sent to the King, and other addresses to the inhabitants 
of Quebec, the people of the colonies, and the English na- 
tion. This Congress also published a declaration of 
rights. 

Preparations for War. — The Congress adjourned on the 
25th of October to meet again during the following year if 
necessarj^ The autumn months were filled with activity. 
The militia began drilling, muskets and ammunition were 



160 CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 

collected, and express riders chosen. An outbreak was 
likely to occur anywhere, but most likely in Massa- 
chusetts. 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — What was England's debt at the close of the 
French and Indian War? What policy did it lead the government 
to adopt? What were the Boston Instructions? Discuss the Stamp 
Act; also the non- importation agreement. When was the Stamp 
Act repealed? 

To what did the presence of British soldiers lead in Boston? What 
other collisions took place? What was the result of retaining the 
duty on tea ? Name the Intolerable Acts. What were the commit- 
tees of correspondence? When and where did the First Continental 
Congress assemble? What was the nature of its official action? 

References. — John Fiske, The American Revolution, Vol. I; 
Lecky, History of England, Chapter XII; Sloane, The French War 
and the Revolution; Trevelyan, The American Revolution, Part I. 



ERA OF INDEPENDENCE 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE WAR IN NEW ENGLAND (1775-1776); 
INDEPENDENCE DECLARED 

Lexington. — An act of General Gage put an end to all 
suspense. Hearing that the patriots were collecting mili- 
tary and other supplies, he sent from Boston on the evening 
of the 18th of April, 1775, eight hundred regulars under 
command of Colonel Smith and Major Pitcairn with in- 
structions to destroy the stores that had been collected at 
Concord, a village twenty miles distant. His purpose was 
to be kept secret, but the patriots of Boston divined his 
plans and sent out riders to alarm the country. These were 
William Dawes and Paul Revere. On the road to Con- 
cord the British found drawn up on the the village green 
of Lexington about sixty minutemen ^ under Captain Parker. 
"Disperse, ye rebels!" commanded Pitcairn, but not a man 
obeyed. Then was given the order to fire. The troops 
hesitating, Pitcairn fired his pistol. This was followed by a 
volley, which Idlled or wounded sixteen minutemen. There- 
upon Captain Parker ordered his men to retire. The 
regulars marched on. 

The Fight at Concord. — By seven o'clock on the morn- 
ing of April 19 the British reached Concord. That place 
had been occupied by a few hundred militia, but on the 
approach of so strong a force they prudently retired to the 

1 Minutemen were those members of the militia who promised to turn 
out for servine at a minute's notice. They had been enrolled, by an act of 
the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts, on November 23, 1774. 

161 



REVOLIITIONARY WAR, 
IN THE NORTH 

SCALE OF MILES 




162 



THE FIGHT AT CONCORD 



163 



hills bej^ond the town, taking with them some cannon. 
The British destroyed the supplies that were left behind 
and set fire to the village courthouse. The minutemen who 
retired to the hills had not run away, but merely waited 
until their numbers increased. Guided by the smoke, men 
crowded in from every quarter, and, when they felt strong 




THE OLD NORTH BRIDGE, CONCORD 



enough, they descended the hill and in a sharp fight drove 
the British from the North Bridge. 

What began as an orderly retreat of the British soon 
became a rout. jMinutemen, constantly increasing in num- 
bers, posted in and around houses, trees, and thickets, 
poured a destructive fire into the ranks of the British until 
the rout became almost a panic flight. Meanwhile, to sup- 
port the first expedition, General Gage sent out Lord Percy 



164 



THE WAR IN NEW ENGLAND 



with his main force amounting to 1200 men. These fresh 
troops met the weary and hunted fugitives near Lexington 
and saved them from ahnost certain destruction. By 
sundown the surviving British forces arrived in Boston. In 
the fighting of the afternoon the colonists lost eighty-eight 
killed, wounded, and missing; on the side of the British 
two hundred and seventy-three were 
killed or wounded. The militia did 
not return to their homes. They re- 
mained in the field and began to besiege 
Boston. 

Ticonderoga Surprised. — A party to 
surprise Ticonderoga was organized in 
Connecticut, but patriots from the 
Green Mountains and from Massachu- 
setts also assisted. Though Benedict 
Arnold desired the command, the 
soldiers preferred to serve under Ethan 
Allen. During the night a company of 
eighty-three rowed across Lake Cham- 
plain and early on the morning of May 
10, 1775, while the garrison was asleep, 
moved silently on the fort. Allen and 
Arnold entered shoulder to shoulder. 
So complete was the surprise that resist- 
ance was useless. Allen summoned the 
dazed captain to surrender. "In whose name? " asked the 
frightened officer. " In the name of the great Jehovah and 
the Continental Congress! " came the answer. The cannon 
and other supplies then captured were of much value to the 
patriot cause. A few days later Crown Point was captured. 
Second Continental Congress. — Though Congress was 
created to advise the colonies, yet before long it was forced 
to govern them. After some hesitation it took into its 




ETHAN ALLEN 



BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL 



165 



service the army of farmers besieging Boston and unani- 
mously appointed as commander in chief George Washing- 
ton, a leader of whom we have heard, and a delegate from 
Virginia. On consenting to serve, Washington refused any 
salary, but arranged for the repayment of his expenses. 

Battle of Bunker Hill. — In Boston, meanwhile, General 
Gage had received additional troops until his army amounted 
to 10,000 regulars. 



FROSPEG-T-HI 




BOSTON. 

CUARLESTOWN.liTC, 



BOSTON AND VICINITY IN 1775 



He now felt confident 
that he could drive 
back the besieging 
army of 16,000 pa- 
triots. Once more 
the purpose of a Brit- 
ish general seems to 
have been guessed, 
for on the night of 
June 16 Colonel Pres- 
cott with 1200 men 
was ordered to throw 
up earthworks on 

Bunker Hill. He fortified Breed's Hill, next to Bunker Hill, 
instead. 

Fearing that the Americans would quickly put guns in 
position on Breed's Hill, and thus command the city. Gen- 
eral Gage sent at three o'clock in the afternoon, June 17, 
1775, more than two thousand troops to disperse the Ameri- 
cans and hold the hill. Crossing in boats from Boston, 
they speedily formed and, directed by General Howe, gal- 
lantly dashed up the slope; Ijut they received a fire so 
well aimed that they wei'e driven hack. After an interval 
a second charge was made and re[)ulsed with equal skill. 
The next interval was longer; then the English moved with 
fixed bayonets, their Boston battery also playing on the 



166 



THE WAR IN NEW ENGLAND 



American position. There was left in the patriot Hnes but a 
single round of powder; when that had been used there were 

only stones and empty 
muskets with which to 
hold the works. The end 
of this unequal contest 
was easily foreseen. 
Though driven from their 
defenses, the Americans 
were not routed, for they 
threw up intrenchments 
near Cambridge and 
stood on the defensive; 
and the King's soldiers 
were not able to follow 
up their advantage. Of 
the American army in the 
battle of Bunker Hill 449 
were killed, wounded, and 
missing; the English 
losses were far heavier, 
1054 having been killed or wounded. Among the patriot 
dead was Dr. Joseph Warren. 

Washington in Command. — On the 3rd of July, 1775, at 
Cambridge, George Washington took command of the Amer- 
ican army.^ Though he was expected to organize from 
the materia] around him a force of 20,000 soldiers, because 
of the lack of money and other obstacles he could train 
only 14,000. Every effort was made to collect guns and 
ammunition, while drill was constant. 

Invasion of Canada. — Congress resolved on an invasion 
of Canada. Accordingly two expeditions were planned. 

1 Up to this time the elderly General Ward, assisted by Colonel Prescott 
and Israel Putnam, had directed the siege of Boston, including the battle 
of Bunker Hill, but his arrangements were not effective. 







BUNKER HILL MONUMENT 




ENGLAND'S FOREIGN SOLDIERS 167 

One small army under General Richard Montgomery was to 
move by way of Lake Champlain, Another under Benedict 
Arnold was to follow the course of the Kennebec River. 
Arnold's troops, in traversing two hundred miles of wilderness, 
nearly perished of fatigue and hunger. 
At last, on November 13, with seven 
hundred survivors he took position on 
the heights above Quebec and waited for 
Montgomery to join him. 

Meanwhile Montgomery had taken 
Montreal. At Quebec he and Arnold 
together could muster no more than fif- Montgomery 
teen hundred men. On the night of De- 
cember 31, 1775, thej^ assaulted the town of Quebec; but 
Montgomery was shot down at the head of his column, and 
Arnold was badly wounded. In the following spring the in- 
vasion of Canada faUed completely. General SuUivan, sent 
by Washington to conduct the retreat, made good his escape 
from forces much larger than his own; for an English fleet had 
earUer brought to Quebec 10,000 German and British soldiers. 

England's Foreign Soldiers. — When George III resolved 
to force his American subjects to obey harsh laws, he learned 
that few Englishmen cared to serve. The difficulty of 
getting enough English soldiers compelled him to apply 
to Russia and Holland for them. Both powers refused his 
request. King George was able, however, to hire from 
several small German states nearly 30,000 men.^ 

British Leave Boston. — When General Washington had 
organized his volunteer farmers into an army, he began, 
March 2, 1776, to cannonade Boston. This puzzled General 
Howe, who had succeeded General Gage in command of the 

' The best known of these English allies were Hessians, Waldeckers, and 
Brunswickers. George III was not only king of England but also the 
elector or ruler of Hanover, then one of the independent states of Germany. 



168 



THE WAR IN NEW ENGLAND 



British army. Taking advantage of the noise, the American 
commander began fortifying Dorchester Heights. When a 
storm had passed, the British general clearly saw that the 
new earthworks were altogether too strong to be taken. As 




FORTIFYING DORCHESTER HEIGHTS 

they commanded both city and camp, nothing remained for 
him but to remove his troops. On the evening of March 16 
the entire British army as well as nearly a thousand Tories 
sailed away for Halifax. 

Thus without the loss of a man General Washington had 
driven a strong army from Boston, which he entered on 
March 17. General Howe, in his haste to get away, had 
left behind two huudretl and fifty cannon as well as other 
materials of war; also twenty-five thousand bushels of wheat. 
Moreover, Boston was free from alarms, and, as it after- 
ward turned out, nearly all New England remained free 
from British troops. 



EXPULSION OF ROYAL GOVERNORS 169 

Progress toward Independence 

Parliament Unfriendly. — Early in the year 1775 the 
Earl of Chatham and Edmund Burke had introduced into 
Parliament bills that provided for giving up the attempt 
to tax America, recalHng the soldiers, and restoring con- 
ditions as they were before the quarrel. But so numerous 
were the King's friends that both bills were promptly re- 
jected. General Howe and his brother. Admiral Howe, 
were given power to pardon any rebels who repented; also 
to give up the scheme of taxation. Their long-continued 
efforts failed, however, to accomplish anything toward 
peace. 

Expulsion of Royal Governors. — The tyranny of royal 
governors was an important cause of the Revolution. In 
the Carolinas, both governors fled from the aroused spirit 
of the people, while Governor Dunmore, of Virginia, was 
forced to seek safety on board a British fleet. By his order 
its guns swept the city of Norfolk for nine hours. During 
three days the fire continued to burn. 

Victories in the Carolinas. — The Tories were both active 
and numerous in North Carolina. The Whigs (patriots), 
about as strong, were no less watchful. Many of the Tories 
were Highland Scots, who thirty years before had fought 
against the King's family, but now had resolved to fight for it. 
The patriots, under Colonel Caswell, met and completely 
defeated the Highlanders and their friends at Moore's 
Creek, on the 27th of January, 1776, taking about nine 
hundred prisoners. In May, when CUnton arrived with a 
British expedition from Boston, there was no one to assist, 
for the loyalists were crushed and for the time all the fight 
was taken out of them. His fleet then sailed for Charleston. 

The defenses of Charleston, on Sullivan's Island, were gar- 
risoned by six thousand men. On June 28, 1776, the British 



170 PROGRESS TOWARD INDEPENDENCE 

began a bombardment. In building the defenses Colonel 
Moultrie used sand as well as logs of the soft palmetto wood. 
On such works the cannonade made little impression. The 
fire of the fort, on the other hand, was very effective. Indeed, 
so crippled were several of the hostile vessels that the entire 
British force became discouraged, and sailed away. 

New States. — The British defeats in the Carolinas left 
those colonies and Georgia free to manage their own affairs. 
North Carolina was the first colony to declare in favor of 
independence, in April, 1776. Massachusetts and Rhode 
Island no longer acknowledged themselves under British 
rule. Virginia declared for independence in May. On 
May 15 Congress advised the colonies to form independent 
governments. Some of them had already done so, and now 
one by one the others followed. They adopted constitutions 
and became states. 

Early in June, 1776, Congress began to discuss a resolu- 
tion offered by Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, "that these 
united colonies are and of right ought to be free and in- 
dependent states." Debate was postponed for three weeks, 
to enable delegates to get instructions from the colonies 
which had not yet declared for separation from England. 
Meanwhile a committee was named to prepare a declara- 
tion of independence; another to draw up a constitution for 
the United States, and still another to consider the making of 
treaties with foreign governments. 

Independence Declared. — On June 28 the document 
prepared by the committee on independence was placed 
before the delegates. Its author was Thomas Jefferson, 
one of the delegates from Virginia.^ John Adams, of Massa- 

' The members of the committee were Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin 
Franlilin, John Adams, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston. A few 
shght verbal changes were suggested by Franklin and Adams, and a few 
slight amendments were made by the Congress; but the Declaration was 
almost entirely the work of Jefferson. 



1 



172 PROGRESS TOWARD INDEPENDENCE 

chusetts, spoke eloquently in favor of its adoption. Richard 
Henry Lee's resolution was first passed, July 2; and after 
further discussion, the Declaration of Independence was finally 
adopted by Congress on the evening of July 4, 1776. The 
pupil should become thoroughly famiHar with this celebrated 
document, which is as follows: 



In Congress, July 4, 1776. 
the unantmons pect.aratton of the thirteen united states of 

AMERICA 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 
people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with 
another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and 
equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle 
them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they 
should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident : that all men are created 
equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable 
rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. 
That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, 
deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that, when- 
ever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the 
right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new govern- 
ment, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers 
in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and 
happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long estab- 
lished, should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and, ac- 
cordingly, all experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to 
suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing 
the forms to which they are accustomed. But, when a long train of 
abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a 
design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is 
their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for 
their future security. — Such has been the patient sufferance of these 
colonies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter 
their former systems of government. The history of the present king 
of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all hav- 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 173 

ing in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these 
States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary 
for the public good. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing 
importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be 
obtained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to 
them. 

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large dis- 
tricts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of repre- 
sentation in the legislature, a right ine.stimable to them and formidable 
to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncumfort 
able, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole 
purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with 
manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others 
to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of anniliilation, 
have returned to the people at large for their exercise ; the State remain- 
ing, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers of invasion from with- 
out, and convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that 
purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to 
pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions 
of new appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent 
to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their 
offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a nmltitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of 
officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, without th3 
consent of our legislature. 

He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, 
the civil power. 

He has combined, with others, to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign 
to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his assent 
to their acts of pretended legislation : 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : 

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any mur- 
ders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States : 



174 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world : 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent : 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury: 

For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offenses : 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring prov- 
ince, establishing therein an arbitrary government and enlarging its 
boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for 
introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies : 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and 
altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments: 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested 
with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here by declaring us out of his protec- 
tion, and waging war against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and 
destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries 
to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun, 
with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most 
barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, 
to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their 
friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored 
to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian savages, 
whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, 
sexes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for redress in 
the most humble terms : our repeated petitions have been answered only 
by repeated injury. A prince, whose character is thus marked by every 
act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We 
have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to 
extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them 
of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have 
appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured 
them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, 
which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. 
They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We 
must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separa- 
tion, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in 
peace friends. 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 



175 



We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in 
general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world 
for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name, and by authority of 
the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare. That 
these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent 
States ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, 
and that all political connection between them and the state of Great 
Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free and inde- 
pendent States, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, con- 
tract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things 
which independent States may of right do. And for the support of this 
declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, 
we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred 
honor. John Hancock. 



New Hampshire 
Josiah Bartlett, 
Wm. Whipple, 
Matthew Thornton. 

Massachusetts Bay 
Saml. Adams, 
John Adams, 
Robt. Treat Paine, 
Elbridge Gerry. 

Rhode Island 
Step. Hopkins, 
William Ellery. 

Connecticut 
Roger Sherman, 
Sam'el Huntington, 
Wm. Williams, 
Oliver Wolcott. 

New York 
Wm. Floyd, 
Phil, Livingston, 
Frans. Lewis, 
Lewis Morris. 



New Jersey 
Riclid. Stockton, 
Jno. Witherspoon, 
Fras. Hopkinson, 
John Hart, 
Abra. Clark. 

Pennsylvania 
Robt. Morris, 
Benjamin Rush, 
Benja. Franklin, 
John Morton, 
Geo. Clymer, 
Jas. Smith, 
Geo. Taylor, 
James Wilson, 
Geo. Koss. 

Delaware 
Cfesar Rodney, 
Geo. Read, 
Tho. M'Kean. 

Mart/land 
Samuel Chase, 
Wm. Paca, 
Thos. Stone, 



Charles Carroll of Car- 
rolltou. 

Virginia 
George Wythe, 
Richard Henry Lee, 
Th Jefferson, 
Benja. Harrison, 
Thos. Nelson, jr., 
Francis Lightfoot Lee, 
Carter Braxton. 

North Carolina 
Wm. Hooper, 
Joseph Hewes, 
John Penn. 

South Carolina 
Edward Rutledge, 
Thos. Heyward, Junr., 
Thomas Lynch, Junr., 
Arthur Middleton. 

Georgia 
Button Gwinnett, 
Lyman Hall, 
Geo. Walton. 



176 THE WAR IN NEW ENGLAND 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — Describe the skirmish at Lexington; also 
the retreat from Concord. Tell the story of the capture of Ticon- 
deroga. When did the second Continental Congress meet? What 
did it do? Describe the battle of Bunker Hill. When did Wash- 
ington take the chief command? Describe the invasion of Canada 
and the retreat. What foreign soldiers did King George hire? How 
were the British forced from Boston ? Name two friends of America 
in Parliament. How did Parliament try to end the war? 

What became of the royal governors in the Southern Colonies? 
Describe the battle of Moore's Creek. Describe the attack on Charles- 
ton and tell how it was beaten off. 

When and how did the colonies become states? Tell what you 
know about the resolution of Richard Henry Lee. Who was the 
author of the Declaration of Independence? When was it adopted? 
If your state was one of the original thirteen, what delegates from it 
•iigned the Declaration? 

References. — Fiske, The American Revolution, Vol. I; Tre- 
velyan, The American Revolution. 



til 



CHAPTER XIV 
THE WAR IN THE MIDDLE STATES (1776-1778) 

Importance of New York. — The English commander in 
chief knew the importance of the city of New York, and was 
carefully planning its capture. From that convenient point 
he would be in a situation to make war on the Middle States, 
to threaten New England, and, perhaps, to win the in- 
terior. General Washington saw the advantages of the 
city not less clearly than General Howe and had taken 
measures for its defense. With a large part of his army he 
left Boston for New York, arriving there in April, 1776. 
General Howe came in June, and was presently reenforced 
by ships and men from England. He was also joined by 
General Clinton after his vain attempt to take Charleston 
in South Carolina. 

Battle of Long Island. — Late in August, 1776, the west- 
ern part of Long Island was held by 8000 Americans under 
General Putnam. Opposed to them were 20,000 British 
commanded by Howe and CUnton. On August 27 a dis- 
astrous battle was fought against this ovei-whelming force. 
With a loss of more than a thousand, including two generals, 
Putnam's regiments were forced back upon the defenses of 
Brooklyn Heights. Instead of attacking as at Bunker Hill, 
General Howe prudently began to besiege their position. 
Washington saw coming disaster, and in order to avert it he 
collected all the available boats on both sides of the East 
River; with these, under the management of skillful seamen, 
he succeeded in taking to Manhattan Island all the supplies 
and the survivors of General Putnam's army. A friendly 
rain and fog get much credit for the escape of these troops, 

177 



178 



THE WAR IN THE MIDDLE STATES 




RETREAT FROM LONG ISLAND 



but when everything is considered, the retreat from Long 
Island must be regarded as one of the most brilHant of 
Washington's exploits. 

Loss of the City of New York. — With the enemy's fleet 
in control of the harbor, it was now impossible further to 
defend New York. Washington retreated northward. At 
Harlem Heights and again at White Plains he waited long 
enough to inflict heavy losses on the attacking British. 
He then stationed most of his army in a very strong posi- 
tion at North Castle. Howe, who had been pursuing him, 
suddenly turned back toward New York and stormed Fort 
Washington, where he took 2700 prisoners. 

Retreat Across New Jersey. — Washington crossed with 
part of his army to New Jersey so as to oppose Howe in 
whatever direction he might advance. Howe began by 
taking Fort Lee, with many tents and cannon; General 



VICTORY AT TRENTON 179 

Greene, who was stationed there, had barely time to escape 
with his men. The British then advanced toward Philadel- 
phia. Washington instructed General Charles Lee, with 7000 
men at North Castle, to join liim in New Jersey, but Lee 
hung back and made excuses for disobeying the order of his 
superior. Doubtless it was to bring about the defeat of 
Washington that Le^ kept his division out of this campaign. 
When he could delay no longer, this treacherous officer 
entered New Jersey, but was captured by some British 
dragoons. While a prisoner he gave the enemy all the 
information that was in his power. His troops, however, 
were added to Washington's forces. 

Victory for Washington. — Congress, which still had faith 
in General Washington, roused itself to action, took meas- 
ures to aid him, and for a time gave him full power. After 
hurrying across New Jersey, Washington passed into Penn- 
sylvania, but not without difficulty on account of the masses 
of floating ice in the Delaware River. As the last boat- 
loads of Americans were crossing the river. Generals Howe 
and Cornwallis arrived at Trenton. Divisions of their armj^ 
encamped for the winter in New Jersey at points some 
distance apart so that they could be better supplied with 
food and shelter. In this arrangement Washington saw his 
opportunity. Collecting all available forces he prepared 
to strike one of these posts a sudden blow. Christmas 
night, 1776, was the time chosen. The river was safely 
crossed, in spite of much floating ice. In a blinding snow- 
storm one part of the army under General Greene and 
another under Sullivan and Washington made a joint attack 
upon the Hessians at Trenton. So unexpected was this 
movement that there was little resistance. One thousand 
Hessians were forced to lay down their arms. With these 
prisoners the commander in chief immediately recrossed to 
Pennsylvannia. 



180 THE WAR IN THE MIDDLE STATES 

New Difficulties. — Though Washington was eager to 
make other attacks, he found it no easy matter to keep his 
soldiers from going home. The terms of enhstment of many 
would expire on the 1st of January, 1777. So far as the 
commander in chief could look into the future he saw him- 
self leading a small army. To keep his men he offered a 
bounty of ten dollars to all who would agree to serve six 
months longer. He pledged his own fortune and urged 
Robert Morris, of Philadelphia, to come to his assistance. 
"Borrow money while it can be done," he wrote to that 
gentleman, ''we are doing it upon our private credit." 

The Financier of the Revolution. — Robert Morris was an 
Englishman by birth, and at the time of Washington's 
victory was a leading member of Congress. When he was 
asked for assistance he was paymaster of the forces. Early 
on New Year's morning he went from house to house 
among his Philadelphia friends to borrow money from them, 
and while it was still early in the day was able to send to 
the gallant army near Trenton the sum of $50,000. Mr. 
Morris aided so greatly in providing money throughout the 
war, that he was called the Financier of the Revolution. 

Battle of Princeton. — After a brief rest in Pennsylvania, 
Washington again crossed to Trenton, to which place Lord 
Cornwallis hastened with his army. That officer believed 
he had the Americans shut up between the British lines and 
the flooded Delaware. By throwing up defenses during 
the day and leaving his camp fires burning brightly after 
dark the American commander deceived his enemy, slipped 
away unnoticed, marched sixteen miles during the night, 
and on the morning of January 3, 1777, defeated a British 
force at Princeton. Thence he led his tired troops to the 
hills around Morristown, New Jersey, where they rested 
during the remainder of the winter The British were 
thus forced to give up most of New Jersey. 



BRITISH PLANS FOR 1777 181 

Struggle for the Hudson 

British Plans. — The British plans for 1777 centered in an 
attempt to gain possession of the Hudson River. An army 
commanded by General Burgoyne was to come from Canada 
by the Lake Champlain route to take Albany, and was but 
one of three armies which together were to seize the Hudson 
and cut off New England from the Middle States. A 
second force, under Lieutenant-Colonel Barry St. Leger, 
was to go up the St. Lawrence River and Lake Ontario to 
the mouth of the Oswego River, and thence by way of the 
Oswego and Mohawk rivers to Albany. General Clinton 
was directed to lead from the city of New York a third 
army, which was to go up the Hudson to meet Burgoyne. 

Defeat of St. Leger. — St. Leger's men arrived at Fort 
Stanwix, now Rome, New York, and began an attack on the 
place before assistance could come. Hearing of their pres- 
ence, General Herkimer with eight hundred men, mostly 
German farmers from the surrounding country, set out to 
reUeve the garrison. At Oriskany the Indians and British 
formed an ambush into which the patriots marched. Then 
followed a bloody hand-to-hand fight in which the musket 
was often dropped for the more ready hunting knife. The 
Indiars and British could not hold their own against the 
Americans, and were finally defeated, but the patriots were 
too few to pursue the enemy. 

When General Schuyler (skl'ler), then commanding the 
Army of the North, heard of the battle of Oriskany, he 
called for volunteers to go to the relief of Fort Stanwix, 
Benedict Arnold offered his services and was soon on his 
march westward with twelve hundred men. On his wa.y he 
gave out that he was coming with a mighty force and he 
took care tliat the tidings reached the ears of the British. 
The stratagem succeeded and the enemy fled. The defeat 
of St. Leger was complete. 



182 THE WAR IN THE MIDDLE STATES 

Burgoyne's Invasion. — When General Burgoyne set out 
to invade tlie United States, his mixed force of British, 
Germans, Canadians, and Indians numbered over 7000. 
Fort Ticonderoga was easily captured. The retreating 
Americans were pursued and overtaken at Hubbardton, 
where they fought a spirited engagement. 

General Schuyler placed so many obstacles in the way of 
his pursuers that there were times when Burgoyne's army 
moved no more than two or three miles ui a day. Schuyler's 
tactics were seriously troubling the EngUsh commander 
when Congress turned the Army of the North over to Gen- 
eral Horatio Gates.^ Like Charles Lee, General Gates 
was an EngUshman who had taken up the cause of America. 

Battle of Bennington. — In great numbers New York and 
New England farmers were collecting on the flanks of 
Burgoyne's army. In fact, they soon cut his communi- 
cations with Canada. At Bennington, in what is now the 
state of Vermont, the patriots had been collecting horses and 
supplies. This fact became known to the English general, 
who sent Colonel Baum with five hundred men to seize the 
needed stores. This force was met, August 16, 1777, by 
New Englanders under General John Stark and was badly 
beaten, as was another under Colonel Breymann. 

Burgoyne's Surrender. — Burgoyne moved slowly do^vn 
the Hudson until September 18, when he learned of the 
presence of the Americans in force. The next day, some 
of the British regiments were attacked at Freeman's Farm. 
This affair, which stopped the southward march of 
Burgoyne, is sometimes called the battle of Stillwater. By 
the 7th of October his army showed signs of renewed activ- 
ity. An attempted attack brought on the second battle of 
Freeman's Farm, where heavy losses showed severe fighting. 

1 Schuyler, though deprived of command, patriotically offered Gates 
the benefit of his services, but was treated with discourtesy. 



HOWE'S BLUNDER 



183 



The Americans because of their two successes were daily 
growing more confident and their numbers had increased to 
20,000. Though General Gates was not on the field in 
either battle, his generals did splendid work. Burgoyne 
saw that further 
fighting was use- 
less, and by an 
agreement made 
October 17, 1777, 
at Saratoga, he 
surrendered his en- 
tire force, nearly 
6000 men, with 
their arms and 
other public prop- 
erty. This was the 
decisive contest of 
the war. 

Struggle for the 
Delaware 

Howe's Blunder. 
— A British force of 
about 3000, under 
Clinton, was to have 
advanced from New York to help Burgoyne. Let us see 
why it was too late to be of service. 

While General Charles Lee was a prisoner he gave General 
Howe mformation as to the best way to defeat the Amer- 
icans. Partly on his advice, Howe determined to take 
Philadelphia before sending Clinton up the Hudson. But 
General Washington maneuvered and fought against him so 
well that he was greatly delayed, and Clinton had to wait 
for reenforcements from England before starting northward. 




BURGOYNE S SURRENDER 



184 THE WAR IN THE MIDDLE STATES 

Battle of Chad's Ford. — In July, Howe's army embarked, 
but whither it was going no one laiew. Time at last brought 
tidings of his landing at the head of Chesapeake Bay. 
Washington's army at once marched southward and on 
September 11, 1777, faced General Howe's veterans on the 
Brandywine River at Chad's Ford, Pennsylvania. The 
British won a victory, resumed their march, and after 
further delays entered Philadelphia. Among those wounded 
in the battle on the Brandywine was the Marquis de la 
Fayette, a young French nobleman, who was to render 
important service to the cause of American independence. 

Battle of Germantown. — Washington, anxious to regain 
control of the Delaware, on the 4th of October made a 
vigorous attack on the English at Germantown. Owing to 
a fog and to some misunderstanding of orders he did not 
gain the expected advantage. He then took his army to 
Valley Forge, about twenty miles north of Philadelphia, a 
point easy to defend as well as one suited to protect the 
military stores at Reading. 

At Valley Forge. — The story of Valley Forge is a tale of 
suffering. This distress was due not so much to American 
poverty as to the poor organization of that part of the 
army whose duty it was to provide food and clothing. If 
there were hardships in camp, yet the winter at Valley 
Forge was memorable for the improvement in the military 
qualities of Washington's troops.^ All winter long Baron 
Steuben drilled the Continentals until as soldiers they were 
equal to the best. His system of tactics was published by 
Congress and adopted in the American army. 

' Besides La Fayette there were many other foreign officers who joined 
the Americans. Kosciuszko, the gallant Pole, rendered good service at 
Stillwater. Among others may be mentioned Baron Steuben, John de 
Kalb, and Pulaski, the last named a Polish count. Steuben had learned 
the militarj- art under Frederick the Great, of Prussia, one of the ablest 
captains in history. 




The first mecuiiK "i Wasaington and Lafayette 



BATTLE OF MONMOUTH 



185 



Philadelphia Abandoned. — While the Americans con- 
tinuetl lit \ alley Ibrgc;, the British had a sort of holiday in 
Philadelphia. For theiu the winter of 1777-1778 passed 
pleasantly. Howe, who returned to Europe, was suc- 
ceeded in command by Clinton. Under him there was the 




VALLEY FORGE 



same inactivity until his government ordered him to leave 
Philadelphia for New York. In June, 1778, his troops 
began their march across New Jersey. Arnold was sent by 
Washington to occupy Philadelphia, while he himself led 
his soldiers in pursuit of the enemy. On June 28 he over- 
took the British at INIonmouth Court House, New Jersey, 
where he hoped to take advantage of the new spirit of his 
army and defeat the enemy in the open country. His 
plan would almost certainly have succeeded, but for the 
treacherous conduct of Ceneral Charles Lee, who had re- 
joined the army after being exchanged. Lee ordered a 



186 THE WAR IN THE MIDDLE STATES 

retreat when he was expected to attack. Only the most 
desperate fightmg, under Washington's own orders, restored 
the battle and gained an advantage. During the night the 
British stole away, and soon arrived in New York. 

Thus, after much fighting, the Americans had control of 
the Delaware and of the Hudson except at its mouth. In 
fact, they had possession of all their country, north and 
south, except the city of New York and vicinity, and the 
island of Rhode Island.^ 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — Why was the battle of Long Island of so 
great importance? How did the American army escape capture? 
What was the conduct of General Charles Lee? Tell the story of the 
capture of the Hessians at Trenton. How did Washington keep 
his army together? Who was Robert Morris? What battle was 
fought on January 3, 1777? 

What was the British plan for 1777? Describe the defeat of St. 
Leger; the progress of Burgoyne; the reverse at Bennington. Who 
superseded Schuyler in command of the American Army of the 
North? Why did Burgoyne surrender? Describe the battle of 
Chad's Ford. Who was the Marquis de la Fayette? What battle 
was fought on October 4, 1777? Where did Washington's army 
spend the winter of 1777-1778 ? Give an account of Baron Steuben. 
What was General Lee's conduct at Monmouth ? 

References. — ■ Fiske, The American Revolution; Garner, History 
of the United States; Lodge, Story of the Revolution; Trevelyan, 
American Revolution. 

1 The British had established a strong garrison at Newport at the end of 
1776. In July and August, 1778, an attempt to capture it was made by 
Americans under General Sullivan and the French under Admiral d 'Estaing. 
But the French fleet was scattered by a terrific tempest, the British sent 
large reenforcements from New York, and the attempt was given up. 
French attacks on the British West Indies, however, together with the 
British campaign in the South, created so great a demand for British troops 
that in October, 1779, General Clinton withdrew all his forces from Rhode 
Island. 



CHAPTER XV 

THE WINNING OF THE WEST 

The French Alliance. — During the year 1776 Benjamin 
Franklin, Arthur Lee, and Silas Deane, commissioners from 
the United States, arrived in Paris to advance the interests 
of their country. In France they found many private 



^'\>fc^'^i^ vili 




\\ i 




•////I/ .■! iP 



BKNJAMIN FRANKLIN IN PARIS 



persons devoted to liberty, but the government would not 
openly assist America because it was not then prepared for 
war with England. The surrender of Burgoyne's army at 
Saxatoga made it clear to all Frenchmen that England had 

187 



188 THE WINNING OF THE WEST 

become engaged in a difficult war. King Louis XVI no 
longer hesitated. He recognized the independence of the 
United States and on February 6, 1778, there was signed in 
Paris a treaty of alliance and of commerce between the 
United States and France.^ 

Private Assistance. — Meanwhile in France one private 
subject, and in Spain another, furnished America with sup- 
plies that seem to have belonged, at least in part, to their 
respective governments. These dealings are wrapped in 
mystery. Blankets, tent cloth, shoes, stockings, and other 
articles useful to soldiers were sent from Spain in large 
quantities. Payment was promised in American goods. 
In vain did the British ministers in both countries protest 
against the shipment of military supplies. 

Spain and Her Colonies. — The friendship of Spain, 
though in importance not to be compared to that of France, 
was acceptable to the infant republic. It showed itself in 
the secret aid mentioned, in the loan of money, and es- 
pecially in the acts of the Spanish colonists in Louisiana, 
in the Floridas, and elsewhere. 

After 1779, when Spain declared war on England, there 
was no attempt at concealment. General Galvez, the 
Spanish commander at New Orleans, allowed provisions, 
military supplies, and even men to pass up the Mississippi 
to aid the colonists fighting in western Pennsylvania as well 
as those engaged in the conquest of the country between 
Kaskaskia and Detroit. In the South, Galvez waged sue- 

1 It was at this time that Lord North offered to grant nearly everything 
that the colonists wanted at the beginning of the trouble. The tea tax was 
repealed, and Parliament promised never to tax the colonies without their 
consent. But after July 4, 1776, there were many Americans who would 
be satisfied with nothing less than independence. Commissioners appointed 
by the British government to effect a reconciliation and persuade the col- 
onies to reenter the British Empire, failed in their mission, and the war 
went on. 



FRIENDS OF AMERICA 180 

cets.sful war against the Englisli and by his victories at 
Natchez, Mobile, and Pensacola assisted Americans in 
winning and holding the Mississippi Valley. 

Other Friends. — Holland, especially its Catholic popula- 
tion, was friendly to the United States. American ships were 
accustomed to call at the Dutch island of Saint Eustatius 
in the West Indies for military supplies. This commerce 
led to a war with England and finally to the punishment of 
Holland. 

Attitude of the Canadians. — In March, 1776, Congress 
had sent to Canada, Charles Carroll of CarroUton, Ben- 
jamin Franklin, and Samuel Chase, as cominissioners to 
influence its people m favor of American interests. Rever- 
end John Carroll, afterward Archbishop of Baltimore, was 
asked to join them and consented to accompany the envoys. 
However, in Canada they received httle encouragement, 
because many Americans were offended at England foi- 
having, by the Quebec Act, given freedom of worship to 
Cathohcs. In other words, Canadians believed that they 
had less to expect from Americans than from the Enghsh,^ 

The niinois Country. — In the French towns in the 
IlHnois country, on the other hand, there were few who were 
not American in sympathy After the treaty with France 
in 1778, the friendship for America grew stronger. This 
greatly strengthened the arm of Colonel Clark, whose ex- 
ploits had a decisive influence in the winning of the West. 

George Rogers Clark. — In the course of the war Patrick 
Henry, governor of Virginia, gave to Colonel George Rogers 
Clark the sum of twelve hundred pounds with which he was 

1 Perhaps a majority of Canadians remained loyal to England. Yet 
James Livingston, afterward advanced to the rank of Colonel, enlisted 
three hundred men in Canada, and with them served under General Mont- 
gomery. Colonel Moses Hazen joined the American army with another 
Canadian regiment. They were known as Congress' Own and down to the 
end of the war rendered useful service. 



190 



THE WINNING OF THE WEST 



to equip in Kentucky a few companies of soldiers. With 
difficulty one hundred and fifty men were brought together. 
In May, 1778, they were at the Falls of Ohio. It was at 
this place, later called Louisville, that Clark heard of the 
treaty with France.^ His purpose was to defend Ken- 



SCALE OF MrLE 



Cb^rry Valley 
N E WPV O^'K 




THE WESTERN COUNTRY IN THE REVOLUTION 



tucky, which had recently been settled by Daniel Boone 
and others, and to conquer the Illinois country .^ At the 

1 Louisville, Kentucky, of which some writers regard Clark as the founder, 
was named in honor of King Louis XVI of France. 

* About this time the Indians attacked other colonies also. On July 4, 
1778, Colonel John Butler, from Niagara, led a force of Tories and Indiana 
into the Wyoming Valley, near Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, and perpe- 
trated an awful massacre. Leading another band, Butler's son burned the 
village of Cherry Valley, New York, and murdered its inhabitants. To 
punish those responsible for these deeds. General Sullivan was sent in the 
summer of 1779 to the upper Susquehanna Valley. In a pitched battle 
near Elmira, New York, he defeated a mixed force of Indians and English. 
Sullivan's army burned forty of the Indian villages and destroyed their 
crops as well as their fruit trees. This campaign greatly weakened the 
Iroquois Indians, but did not entirely stop their attacks on the New York 
frontier. 



CAPTURE OF KASKASKIA 



191 



mouth of the Tennessee River he was joined by a small party 
of hunters lately arrived from the French settlements. His 
new friends agreed to lead Clark by a route which they 
believed would surprise Kaskaskia. Debarking from their 
boats they traveled fifty miles of tangled forest; then 
over a waste of prairie. Without being discovered, they 
at last arrived within three miles of the town, where they 
waited till dusk. 

Capture of Kaskaskia. — Kaskaskia was an old French 
settlement that had passed to the English at the close of 
the French and In- 
dian "War; it had a 
good log fort and a 
strong garrison. In 
his advance Clark 
was exceedingly care- 
ful. On the evening 
of July 4, 1778, his 
soldiers burst into 
the fort and secured 
the streets. The 
frightened people 
were next disarmed 
and the command- 
ant sent a prisoner 

to Virginia, To complete his work the conqueror needed 
money and men. 

Reverend Pierre Gibault. — In war and in peace the 
most influential person in Kaskaslda was Father Pierre 
Gibault (zhe-bo'). When he asked the conquerer whether 
the Catholic Church could be opened, he received the an- 
swer that "an American commander has nothing to do with 
any church save to defend it from insult, and that by the 
laws of Virginia his religion had as great privileges as any 




CLARK AND FATHER GIBAULT 



192 THE WINNING OF THE WEST 

other." Thereafter, says Theodore Roosevelt, the priest 
was "a devoted and effective champion of the American 
cause. "^ 

With a volunteer company of French militia some of 
Clark's soldiers went up to take possession of Cahokia, 
sixty miles away, where the population readily took the 
oath of allegiance to the United States. When the people 
were told of the occurrence at Kaskaskia and of the treaty 
of alliance between the United States and France, this was 
easily accomplished. 

Preparing the Way. — Clark's courage, tact, and kind- 
ness gained for him many friends among the French. But 
the most useful was Father Gibault, who, with Dr. Le Font, 
of the Jesuit seminary, made the journey to Vincennes and 
won over its population to the support of the United States. 
By August 1, the priest had returned, bringing to Clark the 
welcome tidings that all the settlers favored the new Re- 
public and that its flag floated over their fort. 

The terms of enlistment of many of Clark's men had 
already expired, but by promises and presents he managed 
to persuade about a hundred of them to reenlist. A rumor 
of his intended departure alarmed the Kaskasldans and they 
urged him to stay, for otherwise they would be defenseless 
against the British, whose displeasure they had reason to 
fear. Taking advantage of this feeling, Clark was able to 
fill up his companies with recruits, and he spent much time 
in drilHng his men. He had sent Captain Helm to Vin- 
cennes and later a few soldiers consisting of loyal Indians, 
French, and Americans. 

British Occupy Vincennes. — The British General Hamil- 
ton was amazed at the tidings that Clark had taken Kas- 
kaskia and Caholda and had sent a garrison to Vincennes. 
At once he began to stir up the Indians and at Detroit he 

1 Roosevelt, The Winning of the West, II, page 190. 



VINCENNES 193 

made preparations for the reconquest of the region won by 
the Americans. By October, 1778, he was ready to move. 
At Vincennes he captured the garrison, which consisted of 
one officer and one soldier. With a sense of security Hamil- 
ton settled down to enjoy the fruits of victory; he sent 
war belts to the tribes of the south, and with a reduced 
garrison dreamed of a mighty expedition in the spring. He 
did not know his .adversary. 

A Latin Friend. — Colonel Clark gained another Latin 
friend, who was destined to act a very important part in 
the Illinois campaign. Frangois Vigo, an Itahan, some 
say a Sardinian, had arrived in New Orleans as a soldier in 
a Spanish regiment. After his discharge he engaged in 
trade with the Indians and in time became rich. Visiting 
Vincennes he was thrown into prison by Hamilton. After 
his release he traveled to St. Louis, but was soon back in 
Kaskaskia, where he arrived in the last days of January, 
1779. He told Clark of the feeble defenses and the small gar- 
rison at Vincennes; also of the British plans for the spring. 
What was more important, he advanced to the American 
commander the money required for a campaign. 

The March to Vincennes. — Determined to be beforehand 
with his adversary, Clark caused to be built and armed 
the Willing, a gunboat, to command the Wabash. Father 
Gibault as well as the young ladies were good at recruiting; 
they persuaded many of the more daring Frenchmen to 
enlist. Two companies, one commanded by Lieutenant 
Charleville and one by Captain Richard McCarthy, joined 
the forces of Clark. At the head of one hundred and 
seventy men he marched out of Kaskaslda on February 7, 
1779. The entire population followed them beyond the 
village, and at parting Father Gibault invoked God's bless- 
ing on them and their enterprise. 

Even at the outset there was little food and no tents. 



194 



THE WINNING. OF THE WEST 



When they crossed a small branch of the Wabash it was a 
waste of icy waters five miles wide and three feet deep. 
Before long the party was compelled to leave behind the 
cannon intended for the siege. They crossed the Wabash 
to the Vincennes side, the weak being carried in canoes; the 
strong wading in icy water to the chin. Between the starv- 
ing band and the town lay the Horseshoe Plains, which had 




CLARK S MARCH TO VINCENNES 



become a shallow lake. Nevertheless, they broke the ice 
at its edges and plunged in. The few strong men waded, 
while the feeble were saved from drowning by the active 
canoemen. When about to sink from fatigue, they found 
themselves in the shelter of a wood, where the}^ dried their 
dripping garments in the sunshine. There also thej^ made 
broth from the quarter of a buffalo which they had taken 
from a party of squaws. 



IMPORTANCE OF CLARK'S CAMPAIGN 195 

Capture of Vincennes. — Dividing his heroic band, seventy- 
Americans and sixty Frenchmen, Clark besieged the fort. 
It was not till Virginian backwoodsmen appeared before him 
that General Hamilton knew of their arrival. Ammunition 
was freely furnished by the French residents of the town. 
The energetic siege of a night and a day forced the British 
commander, February 25, 1779, to surrender. Under an 
escort conducted by Daniel Boone, Hamilton and twenty- 
nine of his men were sent as prisoners of war to Virginia.^ 
A party on the way from Detroit was surprised by one of 
Clark's companies and relieved of Indian goods and suppUes 
to the value of $50,000, which the American commander 
divided among his followers. 

Importance of Clark's Campaign. — If he had been sup- 
ported by the government of 'Slrgmia or by the government 
of the United States, Colonel Clark would certainly have 
captured Detroit. As it was, he saved Kentucky from 
invasion and 'protected the region to the southward. In 
the end his conquest won for his country aU the territory 
between the Ohio and the Great Lakes. 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — When did France acknowledge American 
independence and form an alliance with the United States? What 
other nations were friendly? What was the attitude of Canada? 
What was the feeling of the French in Illinois? 

Relate the story of Clark's capture of Kaskaskia. Who was 
Father Gibault? State the service of Vigo. Describe Clark's 
march to Vincennes and its capture. What was the importance of 
his campaign? 

References. — Fiske, The American Revolution; Roosevelt, The 
Winning of the West; English, Life of George Rogers Clark; also 
works mentioned in preceding chapters. 

1 Hamilton, who was an officer of undoubted ability, is often referred 
to as the hair-huycr General because of the belief that he generously re- 
warded those Indians who returned with the scalps of frontier settlers. 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE WAR ON THE SEA 

The Men of Machias. — Early in June. 1775, there ar- 
rived at Machias. in eastern Elaine, the Unity and the Polly, 
two vessels guarded by the Margaretta, a British armed sloop. 
It was rumored that they came to get lumber needed in 
building barracks for the royal troops in Boston. Captain 
Moore, of the Margaretta, was offended by the sight of a 
hberty pole and threatened that if it were not taken down, 
he would fire on the place. The people of Machias, however, 
knew their rights and were prepared to defend them. Their 
leaders were the six O'Brien brothers and Captain Benjamin 
Foster. A town meeting resolved that the Uberty pole 
stand and that no tmiber for the British army should be 
taken to Boston. Accordingly messengers were sent to 
other settlements urging the presence in Machias of those 
wilUng to join in a dangerous undertaking. 

The First Sea Fight. — Early on June 12, 1775, it was 
decided by the patriots to capture the Unity and with her 
pursue and take the Margaretta. Captain Moore warned 
the patriots to keep off or he would fire. This ad^•ice they 
disregarded. At the first shot one American was killed and 
another wounded. This was answered by a volley of mus- 
ketry-. Thus began the first naval engagement of the 
Revolutionary- War. 

WTien the vessels came together, the Unity was lashed to 
the Margaretta, whose captain continued to throw hand 
grenades into the midst of the Americans. Led by Captain 
Jeremiah O'Brien, twenty picked men boarded the sloop, 
on whose deck a desperate hand-to-hand fight took place. 

196 



THE O'BRIENS OF MACHIAS 



197 



After an hour the Margaretta surrendered to the American 
captain, who with his own hand hauled down the British 
ensign. In the War for Independence that was the first 
British naval flag taken by an American. 

This was the first American challenge to the mighty 
naval power of Great Britain. Though popularly un- 




CAPTAIN O BRIEN CAPTURING THE MARGARETTA 



Imown, O'Brien, the Irish Yankee, has a high place on the 
roll of American naval heroes. That this was no mere village 
incident is shown by the next step of the victorious com- 
mander. 

Further Exploits of the O'Briens. — Tender O'Brien's 
direction the Unity was refitted and in part equipped with 
the armament of the Margaretta. Her name was changed to 



198 THE WAR ON THE SEA 

Machias Liberty, and under instructions of a committee of 
safety, Captain O'Brien sailed in search of two armed 
British vessels. With the assistance of Captain Foster both 
were taken. The officers with their prisoners were then 
sent to Cambridge and they reported to General Washing- 
ton the importance of the captures they had made. The 
two captains as well as their brave followers had been 
thanked by the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts, while 
tidings of the brave deed done in Machias Bay aroused 
unbounded enthusiasm throughout the colonies. 

In command of the Machias Liberty and another vessel, 
Captain Jeremiah O'Brien sailed up and down the coast, 
taking many prizes; liut later he was captured by a British 
fleet. Captam John O'Brien and others then built at 
Newburyport for the privateer service a vessel named the 
Hibernia. With her he captured the General Pattison, 
which was taking to England a number of British officers. 
In connection wdth another American ship the Hibernia 
aftenvard took a fleet of about sixteen sail, bringing them all 
safely to port. 

Congress Acts. — The brilliant achievements of the 
Machias men were not made by authority of the govern- 
ment of the United States, but under the approval of a 
committee of safety and of the government of Massachu- 
setts. In October, 1775, Congress resolved to fit out two 
armed cruisers. John Barry, a rich Philadelphia ship- 
owner, offered to Congress his vessel and his services. His 
offer was accepted. Of two vessels afterward provided by 
Congress, the Lexington (fourteen guns) was placed under 
the command of Barry, and the Reprisal under Captain 
Wickes.^ 

1 Captain Barrj^'s deeds are described in the following pages. Captain 
Lambert Wickes, in the Reprisal, sailed twice around Ireland, and took, 
in company with two other ships, fifteen prizes. But he was lost, with 
his cruiser, in 1777. 



BARRY'S FIRST VICTORY 



199 



The First Fleet. — The Americans soon felt the lack of 
battleships. Without a navy they could not prevent Eng- 
land from recruiting and sending supplies to her armies. 
By the summer of 1776, however, thirty vessels had been 
obtained. Esek Hopkins, of Rhode Island, was made com- 
mander of the eight that were assembled at Philadelphia. 
It was on a vessel of 
this fleet that Lieuten- 
ant John Paul Jones 
hoisted the first flag 
that ever floated from 
an American warship. 
Hopkins captured the 
forts on New Provi- 
dence, Bahama Is- 
lands, and carried oli 
a number of cannon 
and a quantity of 
powder.^ 

Barry's First Vic- 
tory.— Early in 1776 
Captain Barry and his 
cruiser the Lexington 
left the capes of the 
Delaware. In a 
spirited action of an 
hour, on the 6th of 
April following, he took the Edward, an armed tender. With 
his damaged prize he eluded the British warships in the Del- 
aware and safely arrived in Philadelphia. The Edward was 
the first vessel captured by a commissioned officer of the 

^ On the homeward voyage, begun March 17, 1776, the fleet of Captain 
Hopkins fell in with the Glasgow, a British man-of-war. Though he was 
superior in strength, the American commander failed to capture his enemy. 
This caused some criticism and ^ year later Hopkins was suspended. 




CAPTAIN .TOHN BARRT 



200 THE WAR ON THE SEA 

United States. In the Lexington, Barry captured several 
other ships of the enemy; he then returned to Philadel- 
phia, where he superintended the building of warships. His 
success led to his appointment as commander of the Effing- 
ham, a frigate whose construction he was directing. While 
waiting for its completion, in 1777, he performed an ex- 
traordinary exploit. 

Armed Ships Captured by Rowboats. — Noticing in the 
Delaware, below Philadelphia, a large schooner flying the 
British flag and attended by four armed transports loaded 
with supplies for the enemy, Barry manned four rowboats 
and silently drifted down stream. At night with muffled 
oarlocks they passed the guarded river front and at day- 
break were alongside the armed schooner. Before the 
British were aware of the approach of an enemy, Barry, 
armed with pistol and cutlass, was clambering over the 
vessel's side, his gallant band behind him. Throwing 
down their arms, the astonished British fled below, where 
they were fastened under the hatches. 

Those on the transports were ordered by Barry to sur- 
render or be sunk. They had no choice. In sight of a 
heavily armed British warship he then took his five prizes 
into Fort Penn, turning the transports over to its com- 
mander. Then the hatches were unfastened and the pris- 
oners ordered on deck. Barry and his twenty-seven sailors 
had captured six officers and one hundred and thirty armed 
men. Speaking of this exploit the historian Frost says: 
"For boldness of design and dexterit}^ of execution it was 
not surpassed during the war." Washington publicly 
thanked Barry and his men for their extraordinary achieve- 
ment. 

The Alliance. ^ After the British took Philadelphia they 
succeeded in destroying the Effingham. Barry was next 
appointed to the command of the Alliance, the finest vessel 



THE LAST BATTLE OF THE WAR 201 

of the Continental navy.^ In 1781 this ship fought and 
defeated in a single engagement the Atalanta and the Tre~ 
■passy. So severe was the fighting, which lasted from day- 
break almost till evening, that the three ships were badly 
damaged and Barry was wounded. Another double victory 
was gained over the Mars and the Minerva. Besides these 
four vessels and their officers the Alliance took more than 
four hundred prisoners. Later she also captured the 
Alert. On another voyage the Alliance made nine important 
prizes, sending five home and disposing of four in France. 

The Last Battle of the War. — In March, 1783, Barry 
left Havana in the Alliance with the Due de Lauzun. Both 
ships were carrying for the United States government a 
large amount of gold and silver. They were attacked by 
the Sybille, followed at short distance by two other English 
warships. Before their arrival the Sybille had put up a 
signal of distress. Though a French warship had come up, 
she took no part in the engagement, but her presence gave 
confidence to Barry. This was the last fight of the Revolu- 
tion, for peace was declared April 11, 1783. 

John Paul Jones. — • Though of great seamanship, enter- 
prise, and gallantry, Captain John Paul Jones was never 
given command of a first-class warship. But that did not 
prevent his winning great renown. In the Ranger he sailed 
in 1778 to the Irish Channel. On that cruise he destroyed 
four vessels, fired the shipping in a British port, and cap- 
tured a British armed schooner, which he triumphantly 
took to France. In 1779, with the assistance of the French 

1 In her he took to France, Colonel John Laurens, who was sent as a 
special commissioner. He it was who borrowed from King Louis XVI the 
money needed by Washington to pay his troops and to equip them for the 
final campaign at Yorktown. After the surrender at that place, October 
19, 17S1, Barry conveyed to France the Marquis de la Fayette. After 
seeing to the safety of his envoys on such occasions the Captain was free 
to cruise wherever it seemed best. 



202 



THE WAR ON THE SEA 



government, Jones had manned and fitted out for him the 
Bonlwmme Richard (bo-nom re-shar'), a vessel inferior both 
in structure and armament. His offieei's and crew included 
Americans, English, Irish, Scots, Swedes, Norwegians, 
Portuguese, and French. Cruising off the eastern coast of 
England, he fell in, on the evening of September 23, 1779, 
with a large fleet of English merchantmen convoyed by the 

Serapis, a vessel much 
superior to his own, 
and the Countess of 
Scarborough, a smaller 
ship. Besides the 
Bonhomme Richard 
the fleet of Jones in- 
cluded the Alliance, 
commanded by Cap- 
tain Peter Landais, 
the Pallas, a French 
frigate, the Vengeance, 
and the Cerf. 

The action was be- 
gun by a broadside 
from the Bonhomme 
Richard, which was 
instantly returned. 
Jones's ship worked so close to the Serapis that its cannon 
touched those of the enemy. In a little while both ships were 
burning briskly in many parts, but the fight went on, the ves- 
sels lashed together. When, at 9 o'clock, the Alliance came 
up, Jones believed his victory secure. But to his utter aston- 
ishment. Captain Landais fired into the Bonhomme Richard, 
stern, and bow, and broadside, and sent shots below the 
water line that caused Jones's ship to leak. Three hundred 
British prisoners, whom Jones had on board, were at this 




BONHOMME RICHARD AND THE SERAPIS 



PRIVATEERS 203 

moment treacherously let loose. It was then that some of 
his best officers urged him to surrender, but he refused. 
At half past ten the commander of the Serapis struck his 
colors. Fire and water continued to gain on the victor ship, 
which sank the next day, after Jones had transferred his 
men to the captured Serapis.^ This brilliant victoiy raised' 
the fame of John Paul Jones to the highest pitch. 

Privateers. — By the close of 1779 there remained but 
six of the men-of-war bought by Congress. The others had 
been taken or sunk by the British. However, the seas 
swarmed with privateers; that is, with vessels fitted out by 
American citizens who acted under government Hcenses 
known as letters of marque.^ They continued to capture 
many prizes and thus helped to win the war by making 
British merchants weary of the struggle. 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — Describe the first sea fight of the Revo- 
lutionary War. What other victory followed? What was accom- 
plished by the cruise of Esek Hopkins? Give an account of Captain 
John Barry; of Captain John Paul Jones. 

References. — Rev. Andrew M. Sherman, The O'Briens of 
Machias; Fiske, The American Revolution; John Henry Sherburne, 
John Paul Jones; Martin I. J. Griffin, Story of John Barry. 

1 The Countess of Scarborough, after an hour's fight, was taken by Cap- 
tain Cottineau while Jones was engaged with the Serapis. The conduct of 
Landais is not to be explained as a mistake made in the darkness, for he 
was warned by both lights and shouts that he was firing into his country- 
men, but he did not stop. Throughout the cruise he was disobedient and 
pretended to have an independent command. He was jealous of the suc- 
cess of Jones and plainly appears to have attempted his destruction, in one 
of the most desperate battles in naval history. If Landais had been a 
patriot, Jones would have won an easy victory and have taken the mer- 
chantmen, which, during the long fight, made good their escape. 

* A private person making war on the high seas is liable, if captured, to 
be hanged as a pirate. If commissioned by his government, and he is 
taken, he is entitled to be treated as a prisoner of war. 




82 Lonjlmde 80 West from 78 Greenwich 



204 



CHAPTER XVII 



THE WAR IN THE SOUTH (1778-1781); 
INDEPENDENCE WON 

Hostilities in Georgia. — Having failed in the struggle for 
the Hudson and Delaware rivers, the British adopted the 
new plan of trying to reconquer the 
Southern Colonies.^ Late in Decem- 
ber, 1778, Savannah was taken and 
then Prevost, the English governor 
of Florida, began to overrun all of 
Georgia. To stop his ravages Gen- 
eral Lincohi assembled a little army, 
a part of which was defeated March 3, 
1779, at Briar Creek, a branch of 
the Savannah. This reverse gave 
the British control of nearly all the 
state. 

Siege of Savannah. — Prevost leisurely strengthened his 
position at Savannah. General Lincoln, in conjunction with 

^ Meanwhile, in 1779, General Clinton seized and strengthened a fort at 
Stony Point, on the Hudson. He also sent out from New York several 
expeditions to lay waste the villages along the coasts of Connecticut and 
Virginia. To stop such raids, General Washington resolved on a bold 
stroke, which he entrusted to General Anthony Wayne. Before daylight 
in the early morning of June 16, 1779, that officer brought through the 
passes in the Highlands about twelve hundred troops. At the point of the 
bayonet, Wayne leading his men. Stony Point was stormed and five hundred 
and forty-three prisoners taken. About the same time Paulus Hook (Jersey 
City), near the mouth of the Hudson, with its garrison of one hundred and 
fifty-nine men, was surprised and taken by Colonel Henry Lee ("Light-Horse 
Harry"). This Colonel Lee was the father of Robert Edward Lee, the famous 
Confederate general. In both affairs the American losses were very small. 

205 




GENERAL WAYNE 



206 



THE WAR IN THE SOUTH 



Admiral d'Estairjg, of the French navy, resolved to take it 
by siege. Two .weeks later, the season of tempests being at 
hand, and fearing the loss of the fleet, the}" determined to 
take the place by assault. On October 9 the Admiral and the 
General, each leading a column, attacked at the same time. 
The charge was desperately made, but the defenders did 
not flinch. It was on this occasion that Couirfc Casimir 
Pulaski, the brave Pole, was mortally wounded. The 
assault ended in disaster. Lincoln then fell back into South 
Carolina. 

Loss of Charleston. — In December, 1779, Campbell 
arrived from New York with three thousand troops; in 




CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, IN 1777 



January, 1780, General Clinton brought six thousand. 
Three thousand more came with Cornwallis in April. In 
the South this gave the enemy an advantage in numbers. 

Against the sound advice of Washington, General Lincoln 
began to collect supplies and to improve the defenses of 
Charleston. A siege was begun and to make it more effec- 
tive a British squadron arrived in the harbor. On May 12, 
1780, Lincoln surrendered with 5000 men. 

In addition to Georgia, the entire state of South Carolina 
was now quickly occupied by CUnton's forces. Great 
numbers of Tories flocked to the British army. For the 
moment the patriots were stunned, but they were roused 
to retaliation by the excesses of the enemy. 



DEFEAT AT CAMDEN 207 

Defeat at Camden. — In August, 1780, General Gates ^ 
with a new army of patriots drew near Camden, in South 
CaroHna, a post that had recently been strengthened by 
Cornwallis. After needless delays and an imprudent night 
march, battle was begun early in the morning of the 16th. 
At the first onset the American militia fled. The Maryland 
and Delaware Continentals fought desperately under De 
Kalb, who fell pierced by eleven bullets, but they were 
unable to check the British. Gates fled on his charger to 
Hillsboro, nearly two hundred miles away. South Carolina 
seemed hopelessly lost, and it was now certain that Corn- 
wallis would soon invade North Carolina. For the moment 
his only opposition came from little bands of patriots who 
waged a guerrilla warfare under such able leaders as Sumter, 
Williams, and Marion. 

Treason of Arnold. — Only a few weeks after the defeat 
at Camden, came news of another disaster, of a far different 
kind. . 

As military commander at Philadelphia, Benedict Arnold 
so mismanaged financial affairs as to lead to his trial bj' a 
court-martial. That body sentenced him to a reprimand, 
which Washington made very mild. Moreover, to remove 
all effects of the rebuke and to show his own confidence in 
the offending officer, Washington appointed him to command 
the important post of West Point. But all this did not 
soothe Arnold's troubled spirit. Before long he made an 
offer to surrender it to the British. 

General Clinton's agent in this matter was the accom- 
plished Major Andre, who in September, 1780, was taken up 
the Hudson in the Vulture. Going ashore near Stony Point, 
Andre met Arnold at night and discussed conditions. Morn- 
ing came before the terms of the surrender had been satis- 

1 General Washington was opposed to giving Gates command of the 
Southern army, but Congress made the appointment. 



208 



THE WAR IN THE SOUTH 



factorily arranged. The Vulture was fired upon and com- 
pelled to drop downstream. 

Capture of Andre. — The new position of the Vulture 
made it necessary for Andre to return to New York by land. 
Disguising himself as a traveler, he set out on horseback. 
With Arnold's pass in his pocket he began his journey with 
some confidence, but was stopped by three Americans, by 
whom he was searched. Disregarding Arnold's pass, and 

refusing the offer of 
Andre's watch and 
his money, they re- 
fused to let him pro- 
ceed. Instead they 
delivered him up at 
the nearest post. 
Later he was tried 
by military court, 
convicted of being a 
spy, and sentenced 
to be hanged. 

The officer to 
whom Andre was sur- 
rendered did not sus- 
pect the honor of his 
superiors. There- 
fore he notified l)oth 
Arnold and Washington. As Arnold was the first to learn 
of Andre's capture he fled to the river and had himself 
rowed down to the Vulture, which took him to New York. 
There he received the reward of his treason, namely, $32,000 
in money and a commission in Clinton's army. 

Signs of Discontent. — Treason in high places was not the 
only discouraging sign of the times. Because the troops 
were not paid there was mutiny among them. There was 




CAPTURE OP ANDRE 



KING'S MOUNTAIN 



209 



This Bill entitles 

the Bearer to re- 
, ceive f()rtjjS[iai"if. 
\miCCfl llciCirj , or 

Ithc'Mf thereof in 
ig-M or &i 

corciingtoa<5f/o(i(. 

tion parPed by Con- 

Sept. ififf, 1778. 



CONTINENTAL CURRENCY 



SO marked a feeKng of independence in some states that they 
refused the requisitions of Congress. As the war was un- 
dertaken without revenue, money had to be raised by con- 
tributions from the different states. But even when they 
compHed, they generally gave Congress not gold or silver 
but supplies. "Continental " paper money printed by Con- 
gress gradually fell in value till it was worthless. Another 
resource was to borrow from foreign governments. In 
1780 large sums were obtained in Madrid and Paris. When 
Robert Morris was put in 
charge of the Continental 
finances, early in 1781, the 
situation was improved. 

King's Mountain. — 
The people were heartened 
also by good news from 
the South. When Corn- 
wallis invaded North 
Carolina one wing of his 
army, 1100 strong, under 
Colonel Ferguson, sldrted 

the mountains in the western part of the state. This 
was regarded as a challenge by the dwellers on the Wa- 
tauga and along the other streams of what we know as 
East Tennessee. In a strong position on King's Mountain, 
Ferguson was attacked and surrounded by a picked body 
of mountaineers, who had chosen Williams as their com- 
mander. In the desperate battle that took place, October 
7, 1780, both Ferguson and Williams were killed. The 
American loss was about one hundred, while the British 
force was annihilated. ^ 

Nathanael Greene. — The conduct of General Gates at 
Camden had shown him in his true colors. Of the new 




1 The British loss was 456 killed and 600 captured. 



210 



THE WAR IN THE SOUTH 



army raised for the South, General Nathanael Greene, of 
Rhode Island, was made commander. Under him were 
three very able Virginians, namely, Daniel Morgan, Henry 
Lee, and William Washington, a distant kinsman of the 
commander in chief. 

The new army under its new leader at once took the 
offensive. On January 17, 1781, at the Cowpens, Colonel 
Tarleton, one of the ablest of the British officers, was at- 
tacked in the open field by General Morgan, whose force 
was numerically inferior. Nevertheless, by superior tactics 
Morgan and Colonel Washington almost destroyed Tarle- 
ton's command. The American loss was slight. 

After this victory began a game in strategy in which 
Greene was chased by Cornwallis across North Carolina. 
The American commander gave battle at Guilford on 
March 15, 1781. Here the British were 
badly cut up, though at night they still 
held the field; and they presently with- 
drew into Virginia, leaving Greene free to 
recover the Carolinas.^ 

Cornwallis and La Fayette. — In Virginia, 
Cornwallis hoped to strike a blow that 
would make up for the loss of his campaign 
in North Carolina. While troops from 
Virginia were assisting the states to the 
southward, her own soil had been invaded by Tory forces 
under the traitor Arnold and by a body of regulars under 
General Phillips. One of Arnold's exploits was the burning 
of Richmond, the new capital of Virginia. To defend Virginia, 
Washington had entrusted a small army to La Fayette, 

1 On April 25, 1781, at Hobkirk's Hill, and on September 8, 1781, at 
Eutaw Springs, Greene fought well-contested battles and though neither 
was a victory, yet in each instance he outgeneraled the enemy and soon 
forced the British to retreat. In military ability, Greene is believed by 
many authorities to rank second to Washington. 




LA FAYETTE 



ASSISTA.N'CE OF FRANCE 



211 



who was then only twenty-three years of age. Cornwalhs 
now united his army with the British forces already in 
Virginia, and planned a campaign to crush La Fayette. 
"The boy cannot escape me," said he. But La Fayette 
was equal to the occasion. Greatly outnumbered, he re- 
treated skillfully until he was reenforced; and offered liattle 
only when his position was secure. After a month of useless 
marches through a hostile country, 
Cornwallis returned to the seaboard, 
closely followed by La Fayette, and 
in August, 1781, took up a strong 
position at Yorktown. 

Assistance of France. — In July, 
1780, Count Rochambeau (ro-shon-bo') 
arrived at Newport, Rhode Island, 
with about 5000 French soldiers. 
They waited there a long time for 
the arrival of a second expedition, 
which was held in France by the 
British blockade. With their aid Washington hoped to take 
New York. But in August he received a message that led 
him to change his plans. Count de Grasse^ sent word that 
he was leaving the West Indies with a large fleet for Ches- 
apeake Bay, and would have to return by the middle of 
October. 

Washington and Rochambeau decided to capture Corn- 
wallis, and by rapid marches reached the head of Chesapeake 
Bay on September 5. Thence French vessels took them to 
the neighborhood of Yorktown, where De Grasse had already 

• On March 22, 1781, Count de Grasse left Brest with several frigates 
and twenty-six of the best warships afloat. Going to the Antilles, he 
obtained from the governor .3400 troops to reenforce the army of Rocham- 
beau. He likewise borrowed from the Spanish governor of Havana the 
sum of 1,200,000 francs (about $240,000), for which he pledged as security 
his private fortune. 




COUNT ROCHAMBEAU 



212 



THE WAR IN THE SOUTH 



arrived, with Count Saint Simon and an army of 3400. 
La Fayette's army of about 5000 was thus increased to a 
force of more than 16,000, all under Washington's command. 
Sea Fight at the Capes. — Meanwhile British fleets from 
the West Indies and from New York were hunting for De 
Grasse. On September 5 they were descried by the French 
fleet, which was awaiting their arrival at the Capes at the 




SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS 



mouth of Chesapeake Bay. In a brief but spirited engage- 
ment the British ships were badly damaged, and a few days 
later withdrew to New York. The victorious fleet, re- 
enforced to thirty-five vessels, blockaded Cornwallis, while 
Washington besieged him by land. 

The Surrender of Cornwallis. — General Clinton, in New 
York, had been preparing for an attack by Washington, 
who showed such signs of activity as to deceive the British 
commander. Therefore he had sent no troops to Corn- 



INDEPENDENCE ACKNOWLEDGED 213 

wallis, who was already surrounded when Washington 
arrived to direct the siege. Against a strong army and a 
great fleet prolonged resistance was useless, escape impos- 
sible. On October 19, 1781, the British general surrendered 
his army of 8,087 men with all miUtary equipment.^ 

Independence Acknowledged. — When the slow sailing 
vessels of that daj'- carried an account of the disaster to 
London, Lord North, the prime minister, under the strongest 
emotion walked up and down his office sayiag, "It is all 
over!" Now we know that all was over, but at that time 
it was feared that more fightmg would be necessary. In- 
deed, King George III was so bitterly opposed to a division 
of his empire that he favored renewing the war. In time, 
however, his advisers persuaded him to yield, and on Nov- 
ember 30, 1782, there was signed at Paris a preliminary 
treaty acknowledging the mdependence of the United 
States; the final treaty was signed September 3, 1783. On 
the part of the United States it had been negotiated bj^ 
Benjamin Frankhn, John Adams, and John Jay. 

The northern limits of the new republic were almost the 
same as the present, from the mouth of the St. Croix River 
to the Lake of the Woods. On the west our country was 
bounded by the Mississippi River, and on the south by 
parallel 31° north latitude from the Mississippi to the Apa- 
lachicola and thence by the present southern boundary of 
Georgia to the sea. There were then two Floridas, namely, 
East Florida and West Florida, which Great Britain ceded 
to Spain. 

1 Tidings of the great victory of the allied forces were immediately sent 
to Philadelphia, where Congress was in session. The night watchman on 
his rounds through the capital shouted, "Past two o'clock and Cornwallis is 
taken!" As we may imagine, many waited anxiously for daybreak. In 
the morning the delegates went in solemn procession to a church and gave 
thanks to God. From Philadelphia the good news was speedily carried by 
couriers throughout the land. 



214 THE WAR IN THE SOUTH 

Danger from the Army. — In the spring of 1782 some 
officers, disgusted witli the helplessness of Congress, were 
considering a scheme to malve Washington king. Again in 
March, 1783, in the Newburg Addresses, an appeal was 
made to officers at the headquarters of the commander in 
chief to use the army in order to overawe Congress, threaten 
to seize the government, and force the states to furnish the 
money necessary to pay the soldiers as well as other public 
creditors. To the would-be kingmakers Washington ad- 
ministered a grave rebuke, while in a patriotic and eloquent 
address he persuaded the officers at Newburg to reject the 
scheme for seizing the government. 

When the British army sailed away from New York, 
November 25, 1783, General Washington with a few troops 
entered the city. In December he went to Annapolis, 
where Congress was in session. To that body he surren- 
dered his command and then returned to his home at Mount 
Vernon, on the Potomac. 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — When did the British retake Georgia? 
What did General Wayne do in the North in 1779 ? Relate the in- 
cidents of the siege of Savannah. What reverse overtook General 
Lincoln ? What happened at Camden ? Give an account of Benedict 
Arnold. Give an account of the battle of King's Mountain. Who 
was Morgan? How did Greene outgeneral Cornwallis? How is he 
ranked as a soldier? What did Cornwallis next try to do? 

Who was Count Rochambeau? Why did Washington decide to 
attack Cornwallis instead of Clinton? Describe the sea fight at 
the Capes of the Chesapeake. What did the victorious fleet do then? 
When, to whom, and where did Cornwallis surrender? When was 
independence acknowledged (the final treaty)? Bound the United 
States as described by the treaty. 

When did the British finally leave New York? 
References. — Fiske, The American Revolution, Vol. II; Fisher, 
Struggle for American Independence. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
THE CRITICAL ERA 

When the British army sailed from New York on the 25th 
of November, 1783, the troubles of the new nation were by 
no means at an end. British garrisons still held the frontier 
posts on the Canadian border. A large debt was due to 
France, and the revenue of the republic was not enough to 
pay even the interest. Matters at home looked even more 
gloomy. 

Disputes between States. — New York and New Hamp- 
shire had a dispute over the possession of Vermont. The 
quarrel, an old one, had been laid aside at the outbreak of 
the war, but after the treaty of peace it began again. The 
attempt of New York to charge for the use of her ports 
made the people of Connecticut very indignant. The 
farmers of New Jersey greatly disliked to pay taxes for the 
privilege of selling their produce in the city of New York. 
More grave than the controversies between New York and 
her neighbors was that between Connecticut and Pennsyl- 
vania over the possession of the Wyoming Valley. Hun- 
dreds of Connecticut settlers in that region were barbarously 
treated by Pennsylvanians.^ 

1 In Rhode Island the over-issue of paper money brought business to a 
standstill, while in Massachusetts there was general distress because of 
high taxes, unemployment, and heavy mortgages. In this situation there 
was a widespread desire to cut down all debts by an issue of paper money, 
but the legislature declined to try this remedy. Then came an outbreak 
led by Daniel Shays, a former captain in the Revolutionary army. He and 
his men tried to prevent sessions of the courts and to seize property. The 
insurrection was put down by General Lincoln, and the leaders in the 
movement were pardoned by the governor. By February, 1787, the danger 
had passed. 

215 



216 



THE CRITICAL ERA 



From these disputes it is pleasant to turn to the con- 
troversy between Maryland and Virginia, which was peace- 
ably settled and which was followed by results of great 
importance. Early in 1785 commissioners from those 
states met at Alexandria, Virginia, to set at rest certain 
questions about navigation and fisheries. Before separat- 
ing they visited Mount Vernon, where they talked with 






■"?3 




MOUNT VERNON, THE HOME OF WASHINGTON 



Washington about the state of the Union. They also 
agreed to recommend to the legislatures of their states the 
calling of a convention to meet at Annapolis in 1786. 

The Annapolis Convention. — Maryland asked her 
neighbors, but Virginia invited ail the states to take part in 
the proposed convention. In response to this action there 
appeared at Annapolis in the fall of 1786 twelve delegates 
from five states. Because of this incomplete representa- 
tion nothing was attempted beyond the preparation by 



A HELPLESS CONGRESS 217 

Alexander Hamilton of a forceful appeal to all the states to 
send delegates to a convention at Philadelphia in May, 1787. 
Before relating what was done by that body it will be prof- 
itable to refer briefly to the Congress and the constitution 
of the American people. 

A Helpless Congress. — Congress was not only unable to 
pay the officers and soldiers of the army, but was actually 
too feeble to fulfill the terms of the treaty with Great Britain. 
State laws had confiscated the property of the Tories and 
had prevented the payment by Americans of their debts to 
British merchants. Congress, it is true, had advised the 
states to repeal such laws, but nothing was done. So 
harshly were the Tories treated that in the three years 
following the treaty of peace more than 100,000 of them 
left the United States. The attitude of the states toward 
the treaty gave England an excuse for keeping Ogdensburg, 
Niagara, Detroit, Mackinaw, and other frontier posts, which 
she continued to hold for twelve years. 

A Defective Constitution. — The constitution, known as 
Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, contained 
defects that proved almost fatal to the young republic. In 
the first place the delegates in Congress voted by states, 
and some measures could be passed only by the vote of nine 
states out of the thirteen. Still more important, the laws 
passed by Congress applied to states as corporations instead 
of to citizens. It would have been easy for the general gov- 
ernment to compel a citizen to obey the laws, but an attempt 
to force a state to observe a law might have resulted in war. 
In the second place the general government had no income. 
The states were regularly asked to contribute to its treas- 
ury, and regularly many of them declined. After several 
attempts it was found impossible to amend the Articles. 
During the Revolution money had been borrowed from 
France, Spain, and Holland on the authority of Congress, 




na 



STATE CESSIONS 219 

but though the states gave the general government the 
power to borrow, tliey did not give it any means with 
which to repay loans. Congress was unable to pay even 
the interest on the public debt, and it had no control over 
trade, either foreign or domestic. 

State Cessions. — The Articles of Confederation did not 
go into effect until ratified by all the states, and Maryland 
refused to approve theai until those co n iionwealths owning 
western lands agreed to give them to the Union. The 
states claiming territory to the Mississippi River were 
Massachusetts, Connecticut, Virginia, North Carolina, 
South Carolina, and Georgia. '^ The other states, how- 
ever, claimed that the war was won by the efforts of all 
and therefore all should have an interest in the western 
domain. Between 1786 and 1802 the states claiming 
western lands gave most of them to the Union. When this 
was promised, in 1781, Maryland approved the Articles. 

Movements of the Population. — The long war had in- 
terrupted farming, injured manufacturing, and destroyed 
commerce. Therefore the people were poor, and as western 
lands were cheap, settlers from the East bought farms 
beyond the mountains and began their cultivation. New 
Englanders moved into central New York, settlers from 
Pennsylvannia and Virginia entered what is now Kentucky, 
while those from North Carolina poured into the western 
part of that state, — now Tennessee. 

Ordinance of 1787. — In 1787 Congress passed a very 
important law or ordinance for the government of the terri- 
tory northwest of the river Ohio.' By its provisions a gov- 
ernor and three judges appointed by Congress were to direct 

1 New York claimed a large area in the Ohio Valley, through treaties with 
Indians. 

2 The Northwest Territory, or Old Northwest, comprised the territory 
now included in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and part of 
Minnesota. 



220 



THE CRITICAL ERA 



affairs until five thousand free white males had settled in 
the territory. After it had attained to that population, the 
people could elect a legislature and send a delegate to Con- 
gress. An important section in the Ordinance of 1787 forever 
prohibited slavery in the land northwest of the river Ohio. 




THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION 



The Constitutional Convention. — ■ For the convention 
which met in Philadelphia in May, 1787 (p. 217), the state 
legislatures had appointed sevent}^ of their leading citizens. 
But only fifty-five members attended a part or the whole of 
the time, and only thirty-nine remained to sign the proposed 
Constitution, which was completed by September 17, 1787. 
Rhode Island sent no delegate. Of this convention George 
Washington, a delegate from Virginia, was chosen president. 



THE CONSTITUTION ADOPTED 



221 




Other well-known deputies were Franklin, Hamilton, Madi- 
son, Wilson, and Charles Pinckney. 

The proposed Constitution was sent to Congress, then in 
session in New York. Notwithstanding the opposition 
of some members, it was sub- 
mitted to the states for their 
approval or rejection.^ 

The Constitution Adopted. — 
In several states the Constitu- 
tion was promptly adopted. In 
the New York convention the 
opposition was both able and 
bitter, but a remarkable address 
by Alexander Hamilton per- 
suaded a majority to vote for it. 
In Virginia the enemies of the 
new plan were not less power- 
ful. The influence of General 
Washington, whose efforts outside the state convention were 
brilliantly supported within it by James Madison and John 
Marshall, at last prevailed. In Massachusetts, too, the. 
friends of the Constitution prevailed, though its opponents 
were numerous. By June, 1788, nine states had adopted the 
Constitution and made it the law of the land. Other states 
adopted it later. The North Carolina convention rejected 
it, and Rhode Island refused even to consider it. 

The Constitution. — • By a constitution is meant a written 
document which restrains those who manage the business of 
government. The Constitution made in Philadelphia keeps 

* Though there were many opposed to adopting the Constitution, it had 
powerful and able friends. Washington's great influence supported the new 
plan of government. In a series of eighty-five essays, printed in the news- 
papers of the city of New York, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and 
John Jay explained the meaning and answered all the objections to the 
Ck)nstitution. Collectively these letters are called the Federalist. 



ALEXANDER HAMILTON 



222 THE CRITICAL ERA 

in check the departments of our general government in 
Washington. It provides for a national legislature or 
Congress of two branches, a Senate and a House of Repre- 
sentatives. Its members are elected by the voters of the 
various states.^ Congress has the power to raise money by 
taxation, to borrow money, to coin money, regulate trade 
among the several states and with foreign nations, to declare 
war, raise and equip armies, build a navy, etc. The Con- 
gress under the Articles of Confederation had but one 
branch, it could not raise money by taxation, it had nothing 
to do with the regulation of commerce. It could only raise 
an army by accepting such quotas of troops as the states 
furnished. 

The Constitution also provides for a national executive or 
President, elected indirectly by the legal voters for the 
term of four years, who takes care that the laws are enforced. 
He is commander in chief of the army and navy of the 
United States, and appoints ambassadors and ministers to 
foreign countries, and judges of United States courts. He 
also signs the bills passed by Congress. There was no such 
official provided for by the Articles of Confederation. 

The Constitution likewise provides for the establishment 
of a Supreme Court and certain inferior courts. The judges 
hold office during good behavior. Some of the quarrels 
mentioned above would easily have been adjusted if under 
the Articles there had been a judicial system such as is 
provided for by the Constitution. 

The Constitution provides a method for its own amend- 
ment. It can be changed by three fourths of the states. 
The Articles could not be amended without the consent 
of every state. It was thus possil)le for a single state to 
defeat the most desirable amendment and thus prevent 

' Representatives are elected for two years and Senators for six- Be- 
fore 1913, Senators were elected by the state legislatures. 



FEDERALISTS AND ANTI-FEDERALISTS 223 

progress. Under the Constitution is established wluit has 
been called the " American principle " of majority rule. 

In brief, the Constitution promotes harmony among the 
states and provides for the civil liberty and general welfare 
of the people. 

Federalists and Anti-Federalists. — Those who favored 
the adoption of the Constitution were called Federalists/ 
while those opposed were known as Anti-Federalists. In 
the Constitutional Convention of 1787 there were various 
groups of statesmen. Some delegates came from small 
states, while others represented large states; a few were 
friendly to slavery, though many opposed it; some preferred 
hard money, others favored soft money.- By adopting a 
few compromises, however, there was produced among the 
members something like harmony. But when it came to 
completing their great work it was plain that there were in 
the Convention two groups that could never reach an agree- 
ment, namely, one which was ready to sign the finished 
draft of the Constitution and one whose members refused 
their signatures. One party went home to work for its 
adoption, the other to labor for its defeat. Even after the 
adoption of the Constitution, this opposition continued, 
thus giving rise to the first political parties in our country, 

Washington Elected President. — The voters do not 
directly choose the President, but they select men who do 
elect him. On the first Wednesday in March, 1789, which 
fell on the 4th, the new Congress was to hold its first meet- 
ing. When, after the delay of a month, the Senators and 
Representatives assembled, they counted the votes for Presi- 
dent, and found that General Washington was elected unani- 

' Federal is from the Latin foedus, a union or league Those favoring 
the Union under the Constitution were therefore called Federalists. 

- By hard money is understood metallic money, gold or silver, and by 
soft money is meant paper notes. Though paper money is now equal to 
gold or silver, it was not always so. 



224 



THE CRITICAL ERA 



mously, and that John Adams was elected Vice President. 

As some time passed before these men could be notified of 

the result, it was not 
until April 30, 1789, 
that Washington, 
standing on the bal- 
cony of Federal Hall 
in the city of New 
York in the presence 
of a great crowd, took 
the oath of office as 
the first President of 
the United States. 

Questions and 
References 

Review Questions. — 
In foreign affairs what 
was the situation of the 
United States in 1783? 
Describe the troubles at 
home. To what did the 
dispute between Mary- 
land and Virginia lead? 
Describe the Annapolis 
convention. What was the state of the Congress? Name some of 
the defects in the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union. 
Give one provision of the Ordinance of 1787. 

What do you know of the Constitutional Convention? Who was 
its president ? When did the Constitution go into operation ? Give 
a brief outline of that instrument. Who were the Federalists and who 
were the Anti-Federalists? Who was the first President and who 
was the first Vice President? 

References. — McMaster, History of the People of the United States, 
Vol. I; Lodge, George Washington; Schouler, A History of the United 
States, Vol. I. 




Washington's inauguration at 

NEW YORK 



CHAPTER XIX 

THE BEGINNINGS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH 
IN THE UNITED STATES 

The pupil has read of the exposure and the hardships of 
the pioneers of the CathoHc Church in America. As he 
knows, the privations of many a priest were ended by mar- 
tyrdom. But for years after the colonial era had passed 
the fate of the missionary was not less severe. Oftentimes 
his coarse food was barely enough to support life. In his 
journeys he met the members of hostile tribes; in some 
frail canoe he paddled over inland seas, crossed mighty 
rivers, and traversed gloomy forests without a guide and 
generally without a companion. The names of a few of 
those spiritual heroes the student has learned, but for a full 
account of Catholic missions and missionaries in our country 
he must turn to the pages of a history of the Church. 

Growth of Toleration. — After the beginning of 1757 
Catholic missionaries in Maryland and other English col- 
onies received their spiritual authority from the Bishop of 
London.^ The winning of Louisiana and Canada, settled 
by the French, greatly added to the Catholic population of 
British America. The Quebec Act (1774) annexed the 
Illinois country to Canada and in both regions gave the 
clergy the same rights they had enjoyed under the rule of 
France. This just law offended the English colonists, who, 
in matters of religion, were then less tolerant than high 
officials in England. The help given by Catholic nations, 

1 The number of Catholics in Maryland was estimated by Bishop Chal- 
loner at 16,000; those in Pennsylvania at 7000. In the other colonies 
they were fewer. 

225 



226 THE BEGINNINGS OP THE CATHOLIC CHURCH 



however, as well as the patriotic conduct of Cathohc citizens 
during the Revolutionary War, led many Protestant Ameri- 
cans to form a more favorable opinion of their Catholic 

neighbors. There- 
after in our country 
religious toleration 
slowly grew. 

An American Su- 
perior. —In 1783, 
when independence 
had been acknowl- 
edged, the Vicar 
Apostolic of London 
declared that he 
would no longer ex- 
ercise spiritual au- 
thority in the United 
States. By this de- 
cision American 
priests were cut off 
from communication 
with any part of the 
European church. 
It was then that del- 
egates of the Mary- 
land and Pennsyl- 
vania clergy met at 
Whitemarsh, Maryland, and appealed to the Pope for a 
superior. The Congregation of the Propaganda named the 
Right Reverend John Carroll, a native of Maryland. On 
June 6, 1784, he was confirmed Prefect Apostolic by the 
Holy Father and later given spiritual jurisdiction over the 
thirteen original states. This was the first step in the 
organization of the Catholic Church in the United States. 




RIGHT REV. JOHN CARROLL, ARCHBISHOP 
OF BALTIMORE 



BISHOP CARROLL 



227 



The First Catholic Church in New York. — Much of the 
money needed by Catholics to build a place of worship in 
the city of New York^ was furnished by the Spaniards re- 
siding there. On the day of its dedication the minister of 
Spain entertained at dinner President Washington, the 
members of his cabinet and of Congress, the governor of the 
state, and the representatives of many foreign powers. 
Such was the beginning of 
the Catholic Church in 
Greater New York. 

Bishop Carroll. — The 
growth of our Church in 
the United States soon 
made it necessary for Cath- 
olics to have a bishop of 
their own. Of the twenty- 
six priests qualified to vote 
in such a matter twenty- 
four named Reverend John 
Carroll. The bull approving 
their choice was issued on 
November 6, 1789. In 
August of the next year, on 
his arrival in England, 
whither he had gone for the 
ceremony, Father Carroll 
was consecrated bishop. 

One by one the missionaries of colonial days were passing 
away. This made it necessary to fill their places, and it 
was believed best that it be done with a native clergy. 
The plan of Bishop Carroll was aided by the Revolution in 
France, which drove from that country some priests of the 
Congregation of St. Sulpice in Paris. In 1791, at his invita- 

1 This was St. Peter's on Barclay Street. 




ST. PETER S, THE FIRST CATHOLIC 
CHURCH IN NEW YORK 



228 THE BEGINNINGS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH 

tion, they established in Baltimore a seminary, which ever 
since has been giving to the United States pious, devoted, 
and scholarly priests. 

Diocese of Baltimore. — Not including New Orleans and 
the neighboring region, or Detroit and its vicinity, in 1790 
the diocese of Baltimore had about thirty-five priests and 
thirty churches. There were also a number of outside 
stations attended by the nearest clergymen. 

The First Synod. — The first synod in our country was 
opened November 7, 1791, in Baltimore. Among other 
things it favored the appointment of a coadjutor to the 
Bishop. Being of the same opinion, Rome requested 
Bishop Carroll, with the advice of his older clergymen, to 
present a name to the Pope. The choice fell upon Reverend 
Lawrence Graessel, a German, but before enjoying the honor 
he died of yellow fever. Reverend Leonard Neale, a native 
of Maryland, was then chosen. His appointment was 
approved by the Holy See in April, 1795, though the bulls 
did not reach Baltimore till January, 1801. 

During these years Bishop Carroll urged on Catholics the 
duty of voluntary support of their church, which in colonial 
times had been provided for by the estates of the Jesuits or 
by the rich owners of manors. 

A Catholic Church in Boston. — In New England the 
number of Catholics was increasing. Those in Boston built 
on Franklin Street a church for the erection of which Presi- 
dent John Adams and other Protestant gentlemen made 
generous contributions. Better than any other American 
except FrankUn, Mr. Adams knew the nature and extent of 
the assistance given by Catholic nations in the work of win- 
ning independence. It is not surprising, then, that during 
a visit to Boston, Bishop Carroll was shown by its leading 
citizens the greatest civility. It was John Adams, the pupil 
should remember, who, in the Continental Congress, advised 



CATHOLICS IN THE WEST 229 

that Reverend John Carroll be requested to go with the 
American commissioners to Canada. 

While the Bishop was in Boston, it was arranged that 
missionaries were to be sent to the District of Maine to re- 
vive the faith of those Indians who long before had been 
converted to Christianity by the Jesuits and who had never 
ceased to be Catholics. 

Catholics in the West. — After the Revolutionary War 
had ended, Catholics, like other citizens, entered Kentucky. 
In fact, a few had gone thither even before the battle of 
Lexington. These famihes built homes on Hardin's Creek, 
Pottinger's Creek, and at Bardstown. From time to time 
they were visited by priests. In 1793 the Bishop sent into the 
new state. Reverend Stephen Badin, a native of France and 
the first seminarian ordained in the United States. In his 
work he was afterward joined by other missionaries, among 
them Reverend Charles Nerincks, a Belgian, who arrived 
in Kentucky in 1805. The zeal of these priests carried 
them as far as Vincennes in what is now Indiana. 

It was during the missionary work of Fathers Badin and 
Nerincks that, in 1806, Father Fenwick of the (3rder of St. 
Dominic built a church and opened a novitiate in Washing- 
ton County, Kentucky. Natchez and Vicksburg, Missis- 
sippi, were added to the diocese of Baltimore and by an 
arrangement of Bishop Carroll were attended by neighbor- 
ing Spanish clergymen. 

In the boundless country northwest of the Ohio River 
there was no resident priest, for the former clergymen had 
been recalled to Canada by the Bishop of Quebec, and the 
patriotic Father Gibault, the friend of Colonel Clark, had 
left the French settlements for the Spanish country beyond 
the Mississippi. It was at this critical time that the Sul- 
picians arrived in Baltimore. After 1792 the members of 
this order worked hard to revive Catholicity in commu- 



230 THE BEGINNINGS OP THE C^ATHOLIC CHURCH 

nities where from the long turmoil of wars ^ it was about to 
perish. Among them was Reverend Gabriel Richard, later 
a delegate in Congress from the Territory of Michigan, and 
Reverend Benedict Joseph Flaget, destined to become 
Bishop of Bardstown. 

The Church in the South. — In Richmond, Norfolk, and 
Alexandria, Virginia, there were a few Catholics even in colo- 
nial times. They received occasional visits from some zeal- 
ous priest such as Father Neale, of Georgetown, Maryland. 
In 1788 Reverend Father Ryan was sent to Charleston, South 
Carolina, where there were two hundred Catholics. In the 
sister state of North Carohna members of the old church 
were even fewer, while in Augusta, Georgia, there was but a 
mere handful in 1793, for the colonial laws of that province 
had discouraged Catholics from even attempting settle- 
ments. 

New Sees. — The number of Catholic clergy and laity 
greatly increased during the first nineteen years of Bishop 
Carroll's episcopate. By the purchase of Louisiana (1803) 
his jurisdiction was extended and the duties of his office 
increased. These and other causes led to a division of the 
see of Baltimore. 

In April, 1808, bulls dividing the see of Baltimore were 
signed by Pope Pius VII. This action created the sees of 
New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and Bardstown. The 
state of New York and the eastern part of New Jersey made 
up the diocese of New York; the western part of New Jersey, 
Pennsylvania, and Delaware that of Philadelphia, while 
the New England States were included in the diocese of 
Boston. The Bardstown diocese comprised the Northwest 
Territory, Kentucky, and Tennessee. The new sees were 
suffragans of the metropolitan church of Baltimore, which 
was left with Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia. 

1 Wars had filled much of the interval between 1689 and 1781. 



NEW SEES 



231 



To this see was added the administration of the diocese of 
New Orleans, which included Alabama, the Floridas, the 
Isle of Orleans, and all the territory purchased from France. 
On October 28, 1810, Doctor Egan was consecrated Bishop 
of Philadelphia; Doctor Cheverus, Bishop of Boston on 
November 1; and Doctor Flaget, Bishop of Bardstown on 







fit'--?. 





CATHEDRAL AT BALTIMORE, CORNER STONE LAID BY ARCHBISHOP 

CARROLL, 1806 



the 4th of November. Before going forth to take charge of 
their different sees the new bishops with Archbishop Carroll 
considered the state of the church. There were then seventy 
priests and eighty churches, while the number of Catholics 
was estimated at 70,000. 

During the summer of 1815 Archbishop Carroll's health 
began to decline and on the 3rd of December he died. He 



232 THE BEGINNINGS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH 

had been a patriotic citizen, a devoted priest, and a wise 
bishop. 

Washington's Letter. — In response to the congratula- 
tions of leading American Catholics on his election to the 
Presidency, Washington wrote, in December, 1789: 

" Gentlemen, 

" While I now receive with much satisfaction your congratula- 
tions on my being called by a unanimous vote to the first station in 
my country, I cannot but duly notice your politeness in offering an 
apology for the unavoidable delay. As that delay has given you 
an opportunity of realizing, instead of anticipating, the benefits of 
the general government, you will do me the justice to believe, that 
your testimony to the increase of the public prosperity enhances 
the pleasure, which I should otherwise have experienced from your 
affectionate address. 

" I feel, that my conduct in the war and in peace has met with 
more general approbation, than could reasonably have been ex- 
pected; and I find myself disposed to consider that fortunate cir- 
cumstance, in a great degree, resulting from the able support and 
extraordinary candor of my fellow citizens of all denominations. 

" The prospect of national prosperity now before us is truly 
animating, and ought to excite the exertions of all good men to 
establish and secure the happiness of their country, in the perma- 
nent duration of its freedom and independence. America, under the 
smiles of divine Providence, the protection of a good government, 
the cultivation of manners, morals, and piety, can hardly fail of 
attaining an uncommon degree of eminence in literature, commerce, 
agriculture, improvements at home, and respectability abroad. 

" As mankind become more liberal, they will be more apt to allow, 
that all those, who conduct themselves as worthy members of the 
community, are equally entitled to the protection of civil govern- 
ment. I hope ever to see America among the foremost nations in 
examples of justice and liberality. And I presume, that your fellow 
citizens will not forget the patriotic part, which you took in the 
accomplishment of their revolution and the establishment of their 
government, or the important assistance, which they received from 
a nation in which the Roman Catholic religion is professed. 

" I thank you, Gentlemen, for your kind concern for me. While 
my life and health shall continue, in whatever situation I may be» 



WASHINGTON'S LETTER 233 

it shall be my constant endeavor to justify the favorable sentiments 
you are pleased to express of my conduct. And may the members 
of your society in America, animated alone by the pure spirit of 
Christianity, and still conducting themselves as the faithful subjects 
of our free government, enjoy every temporal and spiritual felicity." ^ 

By the descendants of Washington's countrymen the 
memory of French assistance is kept green. In the Great 
War of the twentieth century the soldiers of the two great 
repubhcs were again companions in arms. American 
affection for France is not soon to fade. But of the patriotic 
part taken by American CathoHcs there is but an imperfect 
record and for it there is in the popular mind but little 
gratitude. President Washington appears to have con- 
fidently believed that the conduct of his countrymen would 
be influenced by a sense of justice equal to his own. 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — Under what bishop were the Catholic 
priests in the English colonies placed in 1757? Why and when was 
the first American superior named? Give an account of the first 
American bishop. Describe the beginning of the church in New 
York; Boston; Kentucky; the South. How large was the diocese of 
Baltimore in 1790? What new sees were created in 1808? How 
did Washington show his appreciation of Catholics? 

References. — O'Gorman, History of the Roman Catholic Church in 
the United States; Shea, Life and Times of Archbishop Carroll. 

1 The Writings of Washington, XII, 177-179. Edition of Jared Sparks. 




GEORGE WASHINGTON, FIRST PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES 

234 



THE NATIONAL PERIOD 

CHAPTER XX 
GOVERNMENT BY THE FEDERALISTS 

The People and Their Industries. — When Washington 
was inaugurated, April 30, 1789, he became President of a 
nation of fewer than 4,000,000 inhabitants.^ In the last 
decade of the eighteenth century a majority of the American 
people were farmers. In the South there were many large 
plantations cultivated chiefly by negro slaves, of whom there 
were in the entire country about 700,000. Negroes were 
never numerous in the North, but in 1789, except in Mas- 
sachusetts, there were slaves in all the states. 

In New England besides the farming class there were 
merchants, shipbuilders, and fishermen. In certain sea- 
ports whaling was important. 

Agriculture was the principal occupation in Pennsylvania, 
but the fur trade and shipbuilding were also important. 
The industries of New York were nearly the same as those 
of Pennsylvania, though, owing to the British occupation of 
the frontier posts, its fur trade had greatly suffered. Some 
iron was manufactured in New Jersey, while its farm and 
dairy produce was becoming important. 

Both Maryland and Virginia raised large quantities of 
tobacco; also wheat and other grain. The pine forests of 
North Carolina produced tar, pitch, turpentine, and lumber. 
There, as in the states to the north, tobacco was a valuable 
crop. In South Carolina the Revolutionary War had inter- 

1 According to the census of 1790, the first taken, there were 3,929,000 
people in the United States. 

235 



236 GOVERNMENT BY THE FEDERALISTS 

rupted the cultivation of indigo; the plant had also been 
attacked by an insect. These accidents put an end to that 
industry. Many planters raised considerable rice. In all 
the commonwealths manufactures were mostly domestic, 
that is, each family made many things that it needed. 
Those articles which American skill could not furnish were 
imported. 

City Life. — Since colonial times dwelling houses had 
shown but sHght improvement in appearance or in comfort. 
The better sort were built of brick and for the most part 
their furniture, china, and silver were imported from Eng- 
land. In towns and cities the narrow streets of that day 
had no sewers, no pavements, no sidewalks, no lights, no 
water pipes. The lack of a good supply of water and the 
use of that drawn from shallow wells, no less than the general 
ignorance of sanitary arrangements, will serve to explain 
the prevalence year after year of dangerous diseases. 

Every city man was compelled to serve in his turn on the 
night watch, and, when an emergency required it, to assist 
as a fireman. For fighting fires he kept near his front door 
a certain number of leather buckets. When the alarm was 
sounded by market bell or by courthouse bell, he hurried 
with his buckets to the burning building, where he took his 
place in a line passing full buckets from the nearest pump or 
well to the engine, or stood in another line which passed the 
empty buckets back to be refilled. 

Rural Life. — At the beginning of the national period, 
however, far more people lived in the country than in cities, 
for the great majority of Americans were farmers. Except 
those owning fine estates many of the farmers Uved in small 
houses which often had no room but one on the ground 
floor, with a loft or garret above it. The more favored 
dwelt in large and handsome houses built of wood, which 
was then excellent in quality and of great variety. The 



ORGANIZING THE GOVERNMENT 



237 



architecture of these, of which a few specimens still stand, 
show that Americans of that era lacked wealth rather than 
taste. Visits and churchgoing made up the most important 
events in the social life of country people. 

Shops. — In an age in which few persons could read, 
places of business in England were known by such signs as 
the Bunch of Grapes, the Red Lion, the Boar's Head. In 
colonial days the American store, similarly named, was 
often the front room of a small house, in the rear of which 
lived the family of the tradesman. 
Much trade was carried on by travel- 
ing peddlers. 

Organizing the Government. — The 
Constitution had provided for the ma- 
chinery of government, but it was 
necessary for some one to set it in 
motion. This duty, Washington per- 
formed with rare skill. ^ 

Of the executive department of the 
federal government, Washington was 
the head. But as he could not person- 
ally attend to all its duties, it was necessary to select capable 
men to assist him. The first official appointed was Thomas 
Jefferson, who was made Secretary of State His duty was 
to manage the foreign affairs of the country. The second 
appointment was that of Alexander Hamilton, who was 
made Secretary of the Treasury. Besides the ordinary busi- 
ness of handling the government money, he had to recom- 
mend to Congress a plan for the payment of the pubUc 
debt and to suggest the best means of securing an income 

' President Washington paid much attention to matters of ceremony. 
He fixed certain hours for talking with officials, and certain days for re- 
ceiving the people. Though he did not escape criticism, the taste, the 
kindness, and the good breeding of the first President enabled him to set a 
high standard to guide those who followed him in office. 




THOMAS JEFFERSON 



238 GOVERNMENT BY THE FEDERALISTS 

with which to pay the expenses of the government. General 
Henry Knox was appointed Secretary of War. To give 
legal advice to the President and to other officers of the 
government, Edmund Randolph, of Virginia, was appointed 
Attorney-General. Collectively these four officials came to 
be known as the President's Cabinet. Other members of the 
Cabinet were added later; by the year 1913 there were 
ten in all. 

The Tariff. — When Washington became President, the 
Treasury had no money and the nation no credit. Within 
three days after its meeting^ Congress began to prepare a 
tariff bill. This measure, which was soon passed, not only 
placed a tax upon goods imported into the United States 
but, to a slight extent, protected the American manufacturer 
and artisan against foreign competition. 

Funding the Debt. — If the United States was to have 
any standing in the outside world, it was necessary that 
provision be made for paying the debt of $11,500,000 due 
abroad. If the government was to enjoy the confidence of 
citizens at home, arrangements must be made for discharg- 
ing the debt of $40,500,000 that was due to Americans. As 
to the urgent need of providing for the payment of the 
foreign debt there was Httle difference of opinion. But 
many members of Congress were opposed to paying in full 
the. domestic debt. On Hamilton's advice, however, both 
debts were " funded " by issuing new bonds for them. 

Assumption. — Another part of Hamilton's funding sys- 
tem would have the new government assume the war debts 
of the states. These amounted to about $22,000,000. But 
as several states had paid their debts during the Revolution, 
they were greatly opposed to assisting other states to meet 
their obligations. This measure, therefore, at first failed 

1 The House of Representatives elected as its first Speaker, Frederick 
Augustus Conrad Muhlenberg, a noted German-American clergyman and 
statesman. 



EFFECT OF HAMILTON'S MEASURES 239 

to [)ass Congress. But Hamilton tisked Jefferson to exert 
his influence in favor of the hill, and the Virginia states- 
man consented to make the attempt. Thereupon the 
measure was reconsidered and passed. In return for this 
service Hamilton and his friends favored the removal of the 
capital to the banks of the Potomac. Accordingly the seat 
of government after remaining at Philadelphia for ten years, 
was removed to Washington, D. C. m the year 1800. 

Effect of Hamilton's Measures. — ■ The tariff, the funding 
system, and the assumption of the war debts of the states by 
the new government, restored confidence. By these meas- 
ures Hamilton won over to the support of Washington's 
administration nearly all the men of wealth m America. Of 
Hamilton's measui'es it may truthfully be said that out of 
disorder and debt and bankruptcy they brought confidence 
and prosperity. At a later time Daniel Webster impres- 
sively declared that Hamilton touched the " corpse of public 
credit and it sprang upon its feet." 

The Whisky Insurrection. — The government was not 
only under the necessity of meeting its present expenses, 
but was compelled to pay interest upon the debt of 
$74,000,000 mentioned above. Tliis condition led Hamilton 
to look around for new sources of income. A part of his 
revenue system was the laying of an excise or duty on 
distilled spirits. In 1791, accordingly, Congress imposed 
a heavy tax on whisky, but there was opposition in North 
Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, and the western counties of 
Pennsylvania, whence in 1794 the officials of the United 
States were driven away by angry farmers.^ 

Into that troubled region, where there were thousands of 

' In that section the principal crop was grain, which could not profit- 
ably be sent over the mountains, because the only conveyance was by 
pack horse. But when the grain had been turned into whisky, six times 
as much could be taken to market. Being generally consumed, whisky 
served as both drink and money. 



240 



GOVERNMENT BY THE FEDERALISTS 



stills, President Washington sent 15,000 militia from Vir- 
ginia, Maryland, New Jersey, and eastern Pennsylvania. 
This show of force immediately restored order. The settle- 
ment of this outbreak gave an early proof of the power of 
the new government and of its purpose to enforce the law. 
Though the leaders of the insurrection were tried and con- 
victed of treason, they were pardoned by the President. 




FIKST MINT IN PHILADELPHIA, 1792 



The Bank. — Still another of Hamilton's financial 
measures was his plan of a National Bank. This was a 
private corporation of which the United States held one 
fifth of the stock and over which it could exercise a certain 
supervision. The Bank could establish branches and issue 
banknotes to be used as money. In the House of Repre- 



CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS 241 

sentatives all Southern members, except three, voted against 
it, while all Northern members, except three, voted in its 
favor. On the question of the Bank, therefore, the North 
and South took opposite sides. The Bank, however, was 
estabhshed in 1791, and, during the next year, a United 
States mint for coining money. 

Constitutional Amendments. — Many of those who op- 
posed the adoption of the Constitution did so because it 
contained no statement of the rights of the people. To 
remove this objection the first Congress submitted to the 
states twelve amendments, of which ten were duly adopted 
in the course of two years. 
These are known as the Bill of 
Rights. Among other things 
Congress was prohibited from 
interfering with freedom of re- 
ligion, freedom of speech and 
of the press, or the right of the 
people peaceably to petition 
for a redress of grievances. 

New States. — North Caro- 
lina and Rhode Island finally 

•^ THE FIRST FLAG 

adopted the Constitution, the 

former in 1789 and the latter in 1790. In 1791 Vermont 
was admitted into the Union as the fourteenth state and 
during the following year (1792) Kentucky also was ad- 
mitted.^ 

' The flag originally adopted by the Continental Congress in 1777 had 
thirteen stars and thirteen stripes. After the admission of Vermont and 
Kentucky the number both of stars and of stripes was changed to fifteen. 
No further change was made for many years, and in the War of 1812 our 
armies fought under the flag of fifteen stars and fifteen stripes, though the 
number of states was then eighteen. In 1818, however, after the admission 
of several more new states, the number of stripes was restored to thirteen, 
and since then the number of stars has been the same as the number of 
states. 




242 GOVERNMENT BY THE FEDERALL'^TR 

Indian Troubles. — After the Revolution great numbers 
of settlers began to build homes along the Ohio and in the 
valleys of some of its branches. The coming of white men, 
by destroying the game and the fur-bearing animals, made 
it harder for the Indians to get a living. . They occasionally 
killed settlers, and in 1790 swept off an entire village near 
Marietta, Ohio. 

After two small armies had failed to quiet the Indians, 
the President ordered into Ohio a third army commanded 
by General Anthony Wayne. After two years of prepara- 
tion that officer met the Indians in battle on the Maumee 
in August, 1794, and completely broke their power. 

Second Administration. — Meanwhile, in 1792, Wash- 
ington and Adams were elected a second time. Their 
second term (1793-1797) was marked by trouble with France, 
with Great Britain, and with Spain. 

Neutrality. — On July 14, 1789, there began the great 
Revolution in France. During much of the time till 1815 
there was strife in Europe. In the progress of the conflict 
France looked to the United States for assistance, but in a 
proclamation of neutrality, which Washington issued in 179.'), 
he warned Americans not to assist by hostile acts any of the 
warring nations.^ He was at once accused by the followers 
of Jefferson of ingratitude toward France; for, they asked, 
had not that country assisted in winning American indepen- 
dence? In other words, France had shown herself a friend, 
while England, the followers of Jefferson declared, had tried 
to enslave Americans. Moreover, to France they were 

* In Washington's view it would have been the duty of the United 
States under the treaty of alliance to assist France if she had been attacked, 
but the fact was that she had herself declared war. It was foreseen that if 
Americans assisted France in that conflict, they would be parties to every 
later war in which she desired to engage. Washington believed that it was 
wiser for Americans not to meddle in European affairs. His Proclamation 
of Neutrality was the first step in the foreign policy of the United States. 



FORF.IGN AFFAIRS 243 

bound by treaties, while witli England they had none. 
Confidence in the support of the Jeffersonians led Genet 
(zheh-na'), minister from France, to appeal to the people 
against their President. But in this he was disappointed, 
for when Washington asked France to recall her envoy, he 
was supported by nearly all citizens of the United States. 

Seizure of American Ships. — In the war with France, 
Great Britain soon gained complete control of the seas. 
When French vessels had been driven from the ocean, 
France opened to neutral nations the trade of her West 
India colonies. Accordingly Americans at once began to 
ship to the islands cargoes of lumber, fish, flour, and other 
merchandise. But England did not admit that any neutral 
country could have in time of war a trade which she did 
not possess in time of peace. Under that principle she 
seized American vessels. 

President Washington learned that even with the best 
intentions it is not always possible to avoid disputes with 
foreign governments; in fact, that it is only a strong nation 
that is able to enjoy the benefits of neutrality. Great 
Britain saw no merit in his purpose to side with neither 
power. Nevertheless, Washington decided to send Chief 
Justice Jay to England to make a treaty of commerce and 
friendship. 

Jay's Treaty. — When Jay arrived in England, he was 
tretited in the most friendly manner. But he was not long 
in learning that notwithstanding his courteous reception, 
British statesmen had no intention of being generous toward 
America. Jay made the best treaty that he could, but it 
did not satisfy himself, his friends, nor, of course, those 
()l)posed to the poh(;y of the President. Among other mat- 
ters it provided for the delivery of the frontier posts named 
on page 217 and it insured peace. The surrender of those 
places pleased the people of the West, while the hope of 



244 GOVERNMENT BY THE FEDERALISTS 

peace was agreeable to the merchants. Though these 
objects were desirable, the arrangements were generally 
denoanced; Hamilton was stoned, while addressing a mob, 
and Jay was burned in effigy. It is certain that Washing- 
ton was not fully satisfied with the success of his envoy, 
but he made up his mind to sign the treaty, believing that 
it was all that could then be obtained. After displays of 
passion such as have seldom been seen in this country, the 
treaty was ratified by the Senate in 1795. 

Treaty with Spain. — Before the close of the French and 
Indian War, Spain had received from France the island of 
Orleans on the east of the Mississippi and on the west all 
the region as far as the Rocky Mountains. As Spain pos- 
sessed the land on both banks of the lower Mississippi, she 
controlled its navigation. It therefore became necessary 
for the United States to enter into an agreement with her. 
By a treaty made in October, 1795, she consented to give to 
Americans a place of deposit at New Orleans, where they 
could sell their produce without payment of duty. This 
agreement, however, she afterward declined fully to carry 
out, thereby giving the United States a ground for war. 

The Farewell Address. — Washington, who had been 
grossly misrepresented and who for years had been savagely 
assailed in the newspapers, declined to stand a third time as 
a candidate for the presidency. Generally his example has 
been followed by his successors. Indeed, the American people 
do not look with favor upon a third term for the President. 

In September, 1796, Washington announced in a Phila- 
delphia newspaper his purpose to retire to private life. 
For more than twenty-one years, in war and in peace, he 
had been the leader of the American people. In resolving 
no longer to hold office he solemnly warned his countrymen 
against the danger of permanent alliances with foreign 
nations and against sectional jealousies at home. 



ELECTION OF JOHN ADAMS 



245 



Election of John Adams. — With Washington withdrawn 
from pubhc affairs his political friends, the Federalists, 
agreed to elect John Adams to the presidency. The Re- 
publicans, formerly Anti-Federalists, looked to Jefferson as 
their leader. The parties were 
not well organized, and the 
election of 1796 resulted in mak- 
ing Adams President and Jeffer- 
son Vice President.^ 

X, Y, Z Affair. — France had 
declined to receive as minister 
Charles C. Pinckney, who had 
been sent over by President 
Washington. In a message to 
Congress, President Adams re- 
sented the insult. In an en- 
deavor to preserve the peace he 
sent to Paris a commission con- 
sisting of Charles C. Pinckney, 
John Marshall, and Elbridge Gerry. When the Ameri- 
can commissioners arrived in France, thej^ found that 
country governed by a Directory made up of five members, 
The Directory declined to receive our representatives and 
instead sent agents to talk with them. These agents made 
it plain that a treaty would be entered into with the United 
States, provided that each member of the Directory should 
receive a gift of $50,000, that President Adams should 
apologize for his criticism of their government, and that 
America should loan France a large sum of money. Weary 
of waiting, the commissioners finally lost patience and 

1 When, after election, the ballots were counted, it was found that 
Adams had received 71 electoral votes, but that Thomas Pinckney, who was 
also a Federalist, received only 59 votes; whereas Jefferson, of the'opposite 
party, received 68. Under the law of that time the candidate receiving 
the highest vote became President, the second on the list Vice President. 




JOHN ADAMS 



246 



GOVERNMENT BY THE FEDERALISTS 



declared that the United States would not l)uy a treaty. 
Cleneral Finckncy is said to have remarked that his govern- 
ment had " millions for defense but not one cent for tribute." 
In sending to Congress an account of the affair the agents 
of the Directory were referred to as X, Y, and Z.^ Hence 

this effort to maintain 
peace with France is 
always referred to as 
the X, Y, Z Mission. 

Americans Aroused. 
— The report of the 
commissioners aroused 
the greatest indigna- 
tion. For the moment 
the admirers of P'rance 
were silenced. Con- 
gress at once began to 
prepare for war. An 
army was raised and 
Washington was ap- 
pointed to the chief 
command, with Hamil- 
"ton next in rank. A 
navy department was 
STATUE OP COMMODORE BARRY, WASHING- created and ships were 

TON, D. C, ERECTED IN 1913 ^^^^^^^ t O g C t h C r. 

Citizens offered their services to the President and without pay 
worked upon the coast defenses. It was in that stirring era 
that Joseph Hopkinson, of Philadelphia, wrote the national 
song Hail, Columbia! 

Naval War with France. — One of the fleets fitted out 
was put under the command of Commodore John Barry. 
During a cruise in West Indian waters it captured a number 

» The name of Mr. X was Hottinguer, Y was Bellamy, and Z was Hautevai. 




THE ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS 247 

of vessels. Another squadron under Captain Truxtun took 
sixty French privateers. The Constellation, the Enterprise, 
and the Boston made many captures. Brief as was this 
war the American navy took eighty-four armed French 
vessels. When the people of France had learned of the 
conduct of the Directory, they were astonished and in- 
dignant. About that time Napoleon Bonaparte became 
the real ruler of that nation and, in 1800, made a treaty 
with the United States. 

The Alien and Sedition Acts. — The reckless abuse of the 
President and his administration by the followers of Jeffer- 
son proved too much for the patience of the Federalists. 
They therefore secLired the passage of the Alien and Sedition 
Laws, which are important not only because they aroused 
the most bitter opposition at the time of their passage, but 
also because they had great influence upon the later history 
of the United States. 

The Alien Acts provided; (1) that foreigners or aliens 
could not become citizens of the United States until they 
had resided fourteen years in this country; ^ (2) that during 
the next two years the President could, without trial, send 
out of the United States any alien whom he believed to be 
dangerous to the peace of the nation; (3) that in time of 
war an alien enemy could be expelled from the country. 

The enactment of severe laws against foreigners was one 
thing, but it was a very different matter to deprive Ameri- 
can citizens of rights which they had long enjoyed. This is 
precisely what was done by the Sedition Act. It provided 
for the punishment, by fine and even imprisonment, of any 
person who opposed the execution of a law of the United States, 
or who spoke or wrote maliciously against the government. 

' Under the old law a foreigner could obtain his naturalization certificate 
after completing a residence of five years. That is the law at the present 
time. 



248 GOVERNMENT BY THE FEDERALISTS 

By virtue of the Alien Act the President did not expel 
any foreigner from the country, but citizens who wrote 
seditious J articles in newspapers were both fined and im- 
prisoned. 

The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. — Among other 
things, the first amendment of the Constitution provides 
that Congress shall pass no law " abridging the freedom of 
speech or of the press." Yet, in violation of the spirit of 
that prohibition, Congress had passed and the President 
had signed an act taking from the people the right freely to 
express their opinions concerning legislation. 

In 1798 the Kentucky legislature as well as that of Vir- 
ginia passed resolutions declarmg those acts of Congress 
unconstitutional and therefore " utterly void and of no 
force." Copies of the resolutions were then sent to each of 
the other states, but they were not approved. Whereupon, 
in 1799, Kentucky declared that when a state believed an 
act of Congress unconstitutional, it might nullify such a law. 

Defeat of the Federalists. — The passing of the Alien 
and Sedition Acts was not the only blunder of the Federalist 
party. Its leaders had begun to quarrel among themselves; 
they had shown a lack of confidence in the people, and the 
cost of the war with France had increased taxation. When 
the future seemed filled with doubt, there was made an 
attempt to persuade General Washington to reenter public 
life, but that great soldier and statesman declined to appear 
as a candidate for the presidency. On December 14, 1799, 
he died at his Mount Vernon home in Virginia. 

In this state of affairs the Federalists were forced to turn 
to John Adams and Charles C. Pinckney. The Republicans, 
who had promised a reduction of taxes, and professed per- 
fect confidence in the public, nominated Thomas Jefferson 
and Aaron Burr. As each of the Republican candidates 
received seventy-three votes, it was necessary for the House 



QUESTIONS AND REFERENCES 249 

of Representatives to choose between them.^ After some 
delay that body elected Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia (1801). 
Aaron Burr, of New York, became Vice President. 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — What was the population of this country 
when Washington became President? Where were negroes to be 
found? What were the chief occupations in New England? What 
in the Middle States? Describe the pursuits of Southern people. 
What is said of city life at the end of the eighteenth century? 

Tell what you know of the organization of the new government. 
What is the Cabinet? Give an account of the revenue measures 
recommended by Secretary Hamilton. How do you account for 
the location of the capital on the Potomac? Tell the story of the 
Whisky Insurrection. What new states entered the Union? Who 
imposed peace on the Indians of Ohio? 

How many terms did Washington serve? In the war between 
England and France what position did Washington decide to take ? 
Justify it. Discuss Jay's Treaty. 

Why did Washington decline a third term? Who succeeded him 
in the presidency? Tell the story of the X, Y, Z Mission to France. 
What caused the naval war with France? 

What were the Alien and Sedition Laws? What called forth the 
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions? Did the other states approve 
them? Explain the defeat of the FederaUsts. When did Wash- 
ington die? Who was chosen President by the House of Repre- 
sentatives in 1801 ? 

References. — McMaster, History of the People of the United 
States, Vol. I; Lodge, George Washington and Alexander Hamilton 
(American Statesmen); Morse, Thomas Jefferson, (American States- 
men); Henry Adams, A History of the United States, Vol. I. 

1 To prevent such a contest in the future the Twelfth Amendment was 
made a part of the Constitution in 1804. Among other changes this re- 
quired each presidential elector to vote for President and Vice President on 
separate baUots. Before this, the electors voted for two candidates without 
naming them for either office; the one receiving the highest number of votes 
was declared President, provided the number waa a majority (more than 
half) of all the electors. 




250 



CHAPTER XXI 

GOVERNMENT BY THE REPUBLICANS UNDER 
JEFFERSON AND MADISON (1801-1817) 

Jefferson and the Civil Service. — On March 4, 1801, 
Thomas Jefferson, perhaps the greatest of American poHti- 
cal thinkers, took the oath of office as President. The 
government having been for twelve years in Federalist 
hands, Jefferson on taking up his duties found in office but 
few members of his own party. Therefore, he deemed it 
necessar}^ to make a number of changes. According to some 
authorities the removals numbered one hundred twenty.^ 

The Louisiana Purchase. ^ — -The movement of population 
into the country beyond the Alleghenies (p. 219) was steadily 
building up new communities. The settlers took up the fer- 
tile lands along the Ohio, the Cumberland, the Tennessee, 
and other rivers. Their barns were soon filled with farm 
produce, but Spain owned New Orleans, the only port of 
deposit near the mouth of the Mississippi where they could 
transfer it to sea-going vessels and send it to market. Dis- 
putes with Spanish officers brought forcibly to the mind of 
President Jefferson the idea of purchasing New Orleans. 
But in 1801 Spain gave it, with all of Louisiana, back to 
France. x\t that time Napoleon, the ruler of France, was 
planning to build up a great French colony in the Missis- 
sippi Valley. Congress had placed at the disposal of the 
President a large sum for the purchase of New Orleans. 
When Livingston, our minister to France, was engaged on 

> Other writers estimate the number of removals under Jefferson at 
thirty-nine. The larger number, one hundred twenty, was less than a third 
of the appointive offices then in existence. 

251 



252 



GOVERNMENT BY THE REPUBLICANS 



this negotiation, Napoleon surprised him by offering to sell 
the whole of the Louisiana territory extending from the 
Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains. Monroe had 
been sent oyer to assist Livingston, and jointly they made a 

treaty agreeing to pa}^ 
Vlhf $15,000,000 for the 

entire tract. This 
purchase more than 
doubled the area of 
the United States.^ 
In spite of Federalist 
opposition, the Senate 
ratified the treaty, and 
Congress appropriated 

"^113 In u n Mi'i I m TToii mi the necessary money. 
~~^yi i^UlM' li'm^^fmi li\ ^j^^ Lewis and 

Clark Expedition. — 

When, in 1803, the 
United States had ac- 
quired the region be- 
tween the Mississippi 
and the Rocky Mountains, President Jefferson sent out 
an expedition to explore it. The party was in charge of 
Captain Meriwether Lewis and Captain William Clark. 

Leaving St. Louis in 1804, they went up the Missouri to 
its source; then found the valley of the Columbia, which 
they explored to the Pacific. ^ After spending the winter 

' Out of the purchase have since been formed the states of Louisiana, 
Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, the two Dakotas, and the greater 
part of Minnesota, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Kansas, and Okhi- 
homa. 

- In 1792, long before the arrival of Lewis and Clark in the Oregon 
country. Captain Roljert Gray, in his ship Colamhia, had discovered its 
great river and given it the name of his vessel. It is clear that the title 
conferred by his discovery was strengthened by that derived from explora- 
tion. Later the United States acquired other titles to that region. 




SIGNING THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE TREATY 



JEFPERSON'S POLICY 253 

of 1805 G near the coast, in the spring they set out on their 
return, antl arrived at 8t. Louis in the autuuni. 

Jefferson's Policy. — As Jellerson was strcnigiy opposed 
to ceremony, lie decUned at the opening of the sessions of 
Congress to appear before the nieniijers and dehver the 
usual address. Instead he sent a written message. Though 
in 1802 the United States Military Academy was founded at 
West Point, New York, on the Hudson River, the army was 
reduced. There was likewise an ec^onomy in the manage- 
ment of the navy. In fact, the expense of government was 
lessened generally, and certain taxes were removed. JelTer- 
son's policy, which was to reduce expense, made it pos- 
sible to save millions of dollars and to apply them to 
the payment of the public debt. In a word, he kept his 
promise to economize and made his first administration 
one of the most peaceful and prosperous that this nation 
has known. 

Growth of the Republic, 1790-1805. — The fifteen years 
after Washington's inauguration witnessed many changes. 
The population had grown l)y 1800 to more than 5,000,000. 
Of these nearl}^ 400,000 dwelt in the Western states and 
territories. Tennessee was admitted as a state in 1796, 
Ohio in 1803. 

Industrial Progress. — ^ Between 1790 and 1800 Samuel 
Slater, an Englishman, settled in the United States and 
built the first American mill for the working of cotton yarn. 
In the same decade Eli Terry commenced as a business the 
manufacture of clocks, but by far the most important 
improvement of that era was the invention of the cotton 
gin in 1793 by Eli Whitney. Formerlv it had been found 
difficult to separate the seed from the fiber of the cotton, 
but after a short trial of the new machine it was seen that 
great quantities could easily be prepared for spinning.' 
This discoverv led to a more extensive cultivation of the 



254 GOVERNMENT BY THE REPUBLICANS 

plant, created a great demand for negro labor, and thus 
contributed to establish in the United States the institution 
of slavery, which the founders of our Repubhc had expected 
quietly to disappear. 

Social and Legislative Reforms. — The states had modi- 
fied their old constitutions or adopted new ones; one by 
one they were abolishing the property qualifications re- 
quired of voters, as well as the religious tests applied to 
both officeholders and voters. The cruel punishments 
formerly inflicted upon offenders were no longer approved 
by society, and were abolished by some of the states. 

Jefferson Reelected. — In a season of peace and pros- 
perity Jefferson's term of office drew to a close. The 
Federalists, not yet without hope, named Charles C. 
Pinckney for President. Jefferson, the Republican candi- 
date, was reelected by a large majority. 

The Burr-Hamilton Duel. — Another Republican was 
elected to succeed Burr as Vice President. Burr was out 
of favor with Jefferson's friends. Moreover, a few months 
before the election, he fought a duel with Hamilton, and 
was now a fugitive from justice. After resigning from 
Washington's Cabinet, Alexander Hamilton had gone to his 
home in the city of New York, where he settled down to 
the practice of law. However, he did not become indiffer- 
ent to public affairs. In the contest between Jefferson and 
Burr in 1801, it was generally believed that the influence of 
Hamilton decided the presidency in favor of Jefferson. 
Thereafter the President's admirers regarded Vice Presi- 
dent Burr as a sort of political outcast. His New York 
friends, however, nominated him for governor and they 
tried to win the Federalists to his support, but such an 
arrangement was prevented by Hamilton. When Burr was 
•defeated, he challenged Hamilton to a duel and killed him. 
This unfortunate meeting occurred in July, 1804, at Wee- 



BURR'S PROJECT 



255 



hawken, New Jersey. It did much to turn public opinion 
against the custom of duelHng. 

Burr's Project. — Seeing no future career in the East, 
Burr resolved to make one in the West. Fearing arrest 
for the death of Hamilton, he went at once to Philadel- 
phia, where he apphed to the British minister for assist- 
ance in bringing about a separation of the western part of 
the United States from that which hes between the Atlantic 
and the Alleghenies. To promote his plan he brought 
together twenty-six men, whom he kept on an island in the 
Ohio River. This force, well drilled, drifted down the Ohio 
in boats and entered the Mississippi, but by orders of the 
President the party was stopped at Memphis, Tennessee. 
Burr was afterward arrested and brought to Richmond, 
Virginia, for trial. There he was charged with setting on 
foot a military expedition against the dominions of the king 
of Spain, which was a high misdemeanor, and with levying 
war against the United States, which was treason. Before 
Chief Justice Marshall 
he was acquitted in 
1807 on the indictment 
for treason, while the 
trial for high misde- 
meanor, which took 
place in Ohio, came to 
nothing. 

Fulton's Steamboat. 
— The first steam- 
boats were made by 
Fitch on the Delaware River and by Rumsey on the 
Potomac, but they were not successful. In 1807 Robert 
Fulton, of Pennsylvania, launched the Clermont, a steam- 
boat which began to make regular trips between the city 
of New York and Albany. Its greater success was due not 




THE CLEEMONT 



256 GOVERNMENT BY THE REPUBLICANS 

only to its better mechanical construction but also to the 
fact that the population of the United States had nearly 
doubled, and that the wealth of the nation had greatly 
increased in the two decades since Fitch and Rumsey had 
made their experiments with steamboats. Within a few 
years steamboats, carrying settlers with their household 
goods and their farming implements, were to be seen on all 
the large rivers of the West. 

Struggle for Commercial Independence 

War with Tripoli. — Though Jefferson had announced a 
policy of peace, and firmly believed in it, he was unable to 
apply his principles to foreign relations, because the rulers 
of other countries were less interested than he in the wel- 
fare of mankind. 

At several points on the northern coast of Africa settle- 
ments had been made by Mohammedan pirates. In time 
they grew to be states, but that fact did not cause them to 
lose their original character. It had long been their prac- 
tice to capture European ships and sell the crews into 
slavery. To avoid this danger many of the European 
governments paid them an annual tribute. Being without 
a navy, the United States, in 1795, made a treaty with 
Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, promising a large yearly tribute 
in spars, canvas, lumber, and other stores. In 1800, when 
President Adams sent the yearly tribute, the ruler of Trip- 
oli demanded more and on meeting with a refusal declared 
war. The war lasted until 1805, when Commodore Rodgers 
with the guns of his warships forced Tripoli to agree to 
terms of peace. 

The War in Europe. — Even l^eforo the United States 
had come to an understanding with Tripoli war had broken 
out (1803) between Great Britain and France. In that 
struggle of the giants Jefferson very much desired to remain 



NAPOLEON'S DECREES 257 

neutral. He saw that in neutrality lay the best chant3e of 
our country for growth in \v(vilth and population. But this 
policy awoke no answering sympathy in I'^urope. If the 
United States Avould not he their ally, said the British 
cabinet, in effect, she must submit to be plundered by 
British fleets. Napoleon took a similar view. If America 
was to be plundered, France must get a share of the spoils. 

Napoleon's Decrees and the British Orders in Council. — 
After victories over Prussia, Napoleon, by a decree (1806), 
closed the ports of Hamburg and Bremen, hoping thus to 
cut off England's trade with the German people. If he 
could not defeat his enemy on sea, he believed that he could 
cripple her industries. In May, 180(5, England answered 
with an order in council, which blockaded the coast of 
Europe from Brest to the mouth of the Elbe. In Novem- 
ber, Napoleon declared the British Isles in a state of block- 
ade and prohibited British trade with any country under 
the control of France. A year later, in November, 1807, 
Great Britain issued another order in council requiring her 
naval officers to seize any vessel bound for a closed port in 
Europe, unless it had first touched at a British port, paid 
duty, and purchased a license to trade. After defeating 
the Austrians and entering Milan, Napoleon, in December, 
1807, issued still another decree directing the seizure of any 
ship that had called at a British port and taken out such a 
license. 

The Leopard and the Chesapeake. — From what has been 
said it is clear that the British closed to American com- 
merce one half the world, the French the other half. Many 
vessels of American citizens were taken on the high seas or 
in European ports. Even trade between ports in the 
United States could not be carried on with safety. British 
impudence reached its height in June, 1807, when the 
Leonard fired a broadside into the unprepared Chesapeake, 



258 GOVERNMENT BY THE REPUBLICANS 

killing and wounding several seamen and compelling the 
American warship to surrender. After a search for de- 
serters the English commander carried off four men, of whom 
three were native-born citizens of the United States. The 
fourth, a former British sailor, was hanged at Halifax. For 
a moment the spirit of '76 was stirred to life; a vessel was 
ordered to England to demand atonement, and Congress 
was called in special session. 

The Long Embargo. — When Congress met, the Presi- 
dent sent in a message recommending an embargo, which 
was soon established (1807). It prohibited vessels from 
leaving our ports. In Jefferson's view such a measure 
would save American ships and seamen, and would deprive 
both France and England of American supplies; but he over- 
looked the fact that it would also put an end to American 
foreign commerce. Being injurious, the law was evaded. 
Upon this there was passed a Force Act (1809) giving the 
President the right to use the army and navy to compel 
obedience. So indignant was the protest of New England, 
which was deeply interested in commerce, that in 1809 
Congress repealed the laws and for them substituted a 
non-intercourse act. 

Retirement of Jefferson. — During his second term, 
which expired March 4, 1809, Jefferson had fallen on trou- 
blous times, and for such an era he was but a poor captain. 
In the autumn of 1808 his friend James Madison was 
elected to succeed him, and four years later was reelected. 

The Non-Intercourse Act. — Learning nothing from the 
experience of Jefferson, President Madison believed that a 
policy of embargo and non-importation would in time bring 
both Great Britain and France to reason. The Non- 
Intercourse Act of 1809 prohibited trade with both those 
nations, but allowed it with countries not under British or 
French control. If either would repeal its orders or de- 



WAR WITH ENGLAND 259 

crees, the President would make known the fact and renew 
commerce with that country.^ 

The President and the Little Belt. — When the frigate 
President and tiie British sloop of war Little Belt had an 
encounter near Sandy Hook, just outside New York harbor, 
the prospect of peace was again clouded. While neither 
side admitted having fired the first shot, it is quite certain 
that after' the disgraceful surrender of the Chesapeake, 
American officers welcomed an opportunity to wipe out the 
memory of that event. In the fight that followed the 
American loss was one man, while that of the Little Belt 
was thirty. 

"War Declared against England. — In a message to 
Congress the President mentioned the offenses of both 
England and France, and later, in his letters, stated that 
the danger of a conflict was as great with one power as with 
the other. Let us see, then, why he finally recommended a 
declaration of war against England. By that time the men 
who had been prominent in the Revolution had nearly all 
ceased to assist in shaping the polic}^ of the government. 
The leaders of the new generation were Henry Clay, of 
Kentucky, who was Speaker of the House of Representa- 
tives, and John C. Calhoun (kal-hoon') of South Carolina. 
These and others were lashing the House into fury against 
England. There was, indeed, a wide difference between 

* Erskine, the British minister at Washington, desired to establish more 
friendly relations between England and the United States. He made an 
agreement for repealing the orders in council, and many American ships 
left port. King George III did not approve the act of his minister, but our 
vessels were permitted to complete their voyages without being molested. 
This failure of Great Britain to support her minister forced Madison once 
more to suspend trade with Great Britain. Meanwhile, Napoleon pretended 
to suspend his decrees, but in May, 1810, he ordered the seizure of all 
American vessels in ports under French control. This caused a loss esti- 
mated at $40,000,000. After a demand for compensation, which was re- 
fused, Madison meekly submitted to the outrage. 



260 



MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 



the offenders, for the British had impressed thousands of 
seamen from American ships. Tn response to the Presi- 
dent's recommenda- 
^ tion, Congress de- 

clared war against 
England ^ on June 
18, 1812. 

Causes of the 
War. — In his proc- 
lamation the Presi- 
dent stated as the 
reasons for the war: 

(1) the impressment 
of American sailors, 

(2) the sending of 
ships to cruise off 
American ports and 
the search of Ameri- 
can vessels, (3) in- 
terfering with trade 
by the orders in 
council, (4) urging 
Indians to make war 
on the settlers in the 
West.2 

* The Constitution 
gives Congress the author- 
ity to declare war. The 
President can only recom- 
mend it. The pro-French 
party was in power in 1812. 
* That the British had been stirring up the Indians was generally be- 
lieved, but this charge, unlike the rest, was without foundation. The twin 
brothers, Tecumseh and the Prophet, able Indian leaders like King Philip 
and Pontiac, attempted to unite all the Indians from the Great Lakes to the 
Gulf of Mexico In a war for the purpose of driving white men from the 




IMPRESSING SEAMEN 



WAR WITH ENGLAND 261 

State of the Nation. — When war was declared the 
treasury was empty, while the measures of Congress had 
almost destroyed commerce. In 1811 the United States 
Bank had been refused a new charter. Therefore the 
government began the war with no suitable agency for 
regulating its finances. Both the army and the navy were 
small. It was in such circumstances that Congress de- 
clared war on the ''Mistress of the Seas," as England was 
proudly called. As might have been expected, there 
followed for the United States eighteen months of dis- 
aster. 

On the Canadian Frontier. — According to the plans 
formed at Washington, the war was to be won by the con- 
quest of Canada. For this purpose three armies were 
assembled along the Canadian frontier. One under 
General Hull was to cross at Detroit and move eastward; 
a second, commanded by General Van Rensselaer, was 
expected to cross the Niagara River, assist the forces of 
Hull in the capture of York (Toronto), and march to Mont- 
real. General Dearborn with the third army was to enter 
Canada from northeastern New York and proceed to 
Montreal. After the joint forces had taken Montreal and 
Quebec, it was believed that Canada must fall. But the 
plan completely failed. 

Hull was not only driven from Canada but pursued to 
Detroit, where he surrendered to General Brock. Van 
Rensselaer did not succeed in making any permanent 
conquest in Canada, though on October 13, 1812, about 
1500 of his men crossed the Niagara and by assault carried 
Queenstown Heights. When reinforcements arrived for 
the British, the Americans were soon overcome and the 

Mississippi Valley. The activity of the Prophet in 1911 so alarmed General 
William Henry Harrison that he raised a force, marched upon the Indiana, 
and defeated them at the battle of Tippecanoe in Indiana. 



262 



MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 



survivors made prisoners of war. Dearborn did not even 
cross the boundary line. 

As the surrender of Detroit had aroused much indigna- 
tion, the public demanded that somebody be punished. 




Therefore General Hull was 
tried for neglect of duty, was 
convicted and sentenced to 
death, but was pardoned by 
the President. The failure of 
Hull led to the raising of a 
new army, which was placed 

under William Henry Harrison. In attempting to make 
a midwinter march through Ohio for the recovery of De- 
troit the advance guard of this army was attacked, January 
22, 1813, at Frenchtown on the Raisin River, where 
the Indians massacred their prisoners. The British and 
their allies then attacked Fort Meigs and Fort Stephenson, 



BATTLE OF LAIvE ERIE 



263 



but were driven off. These events stopped the advance 
of General Harrison. 

Battle of Lake Erie. — The British hurriedly built a fleet 
in order to control Lake Erie.^ At the same time Oliver 
Hazard Perry, a young American naval officer, was doing 
his best to build another. In the neighboring forests his 
men felled the timber, which was speedily turned into 

shape by his mechanics. Nine 
small vessels were hastily 
put together and equipped. 
When his ships were built, 




PERRY IN THE BATTLE OP LAKE ERIE 



Perry borrowed some cannon from General Harrison, 
mounted them on his decks, and waited for a friendly breeze. 
Just before the British fleet arrived, September 10, 1813, a 
light wind wafted Perry's new ships out of the harbor. 
With his flagship, the Lawrence, Perry attacked the largest 
two of the enemy's vessels and fought them until most of his 
guns were dismounted and only eight of his men were left. 
Then entering a boat, he was rowed to the Niagara. In 

1 On Lake Ontario the Americans under Commodore Chauncey had 
gained control. In May, 1813, his fleet took across to Canada a force of 
2500 men, who captured York (Toronto) and burned the public buildings. 
The British remembered this incident. 



2fi4 MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 

the midst of the British fire he had carried a blue pennon 
inscribed with the dying command of Captain Lawrence, 
"Don't give up the ship."^ In a splendid charge the 
Niayara, which had thus far escaped serious injury, soon 
broke the British battle line and with the assistance of her 
sister ships captured the whole British fleet. Perry's dis- 
patch to General Harrison was brief but telling: "We have 
met the enemy and they are ours. Two ships, two Brigs, 
one Schooner, & one Sloop." 

Battle of the Thames. — Commodore Perry was able not 
only to send back the borrowed guns to General Harrison 
but to turn the tide of war in the West. His victorious 
fleet transported Harrison's army across Lake Erie. This 
made it necessary for the British to abandon Detroit with- 
out delay. On the Thames River they were overtaken 
and defeated (October 5). Tecumseh was killed. The 
victories of Perry and Harrison won back all that had been 
lost by Hull's surrender of Detroit. 

Fighting along the Niagara. — During the summer of 
1814 the Americans under capable commanders, Jacob 
Brow.n and Winfield Scott, invaded Canada along the line 
of the Niagara River. It was in this campaign that bloody 
battles were fought at Chippewa (July 5) and Lundy's 
Lane (July 25). Though the Americans fought with the 
utmost bravery and won both battles, they were finally 
driven out of Canada. 

Capture of Washington. — Up to midsummer of 1814 
British fleets rode triumphant from the shores of Long 
Island to the mouth of the Mississippi. Part of the Chesa- 
peake coast was actually for a time conquered territory. 
The people were terrorized and their government was 

1 The gallant Captain Lawrence of the Chesapeake was killed off Boston 
during an action with the Shannon. Perry's flagship was named in honor 
of the brave commander of the Chesapeake. 



THE ATTACK ON BALTIMORE 265 

unable to protect them. In August, 1814, occurred the 
most disgraceful events of the war, namely, the defeat of 
the American militia at Bladensburg, Maryland, and the 
capture of Washington ijy a handful of British troops. 

The Attack on Baltimore. — After a quiet occupation of 
Washington, during which some public buildings were 
burned,^ the British sailed for Baltimore, where they were 
defeated in a battle at North Point and where their fleet 
made a vain attack on Fort McHenry. President Madison 
had sent Francis Scott Key to the British f.cct to request 
the release of some civilians who were detained. Mr. Key 
was taken by the fleet into Baltimore harbor, and kept 
on board till the next morning, so that he watched the 
bombardment of Fort McHenry from an English ship. 

PART OF THE STAR SPANGLED BANNER IN KET's "WRITING 

It was then and there that he composed The Star Spangled 
Banjierr 

The Battle of Lake Champlain. — Notwithstanding the 
victories of Commodore Perry and General Harrison and 
the British reverses at Baltimore, the British would still 
have gained possession of much American territory if it had 
not been for the defeat of their land and naval forces at 
Plattsburg, New York. 

The American fleet on Lake Champlain, under Captain 

■ The British said this was in retaliation for the burning of York (note, 
page 263). Among the buildings injured in Washington were the Capitol, 
the Executive Mansion (White House), and the Treasury. 

' Key's song was at once set to music and the same night enthusiastically 
sung at a theater in Baltimore. After their defeat, the British sailed away 
to Jamaica. 




266 



MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 



Thomas Macdonough/ was skillfully placed in Plattsburg 
harbor. At daybreak on September 11, 1814, the British 
Captain Downie sailed toward Plattsburg, expecting to 
drive the American ships from their position and with his 
superior force destroy them on the open lake. Cooperating 
with his fine fleet was a powerful army of 11,000 to 14,000 
men, commanded by General Sir George Prevost. This 
army's feeble attack on Plattsburg was repulsed by General 
Alexander Macomb with a body of 
militia. Disappointed at the failure 
of the army to capture the town 
and drive Macdonough's fleet from 
the harbor, Downie bravely made 
the attempt with his squadron. 

The American commander, how- 
ever, had provided ^f or nearly every 
possible happening, and was eager 
to take part in the battle. Like a 
common sailor he worked a favorite 
gun. For a few minutes he was 
struck senseless by a falling spar. 
He had scarcely risen to his feet, 
when he was knocked across the 
deck by the head of one of his captains which was struck 
off by a cannon ball. Early in the fight the British com- 
mander was killed. The sails of the Saratoga, Mac- 
donough's flagship, were cut to rags, the masts looked 
like bundles of matches. His superior seamanship en- 
abled him to slacken and then to silence the enemy's fire. 
In two hours the most dangerous of the British vessels 
struck her colors. Within half an hour more the other 




CAPTAIN THOMAS MAC- 
DONOTJGH 



> By his father the name was spelled McDonough and by his grandfather, 
who had come to Delaware from the county Kildare, Ireland, it was spelled 
MacDonough. 



SEA FIGHTS 



267 



vessels were disabled. About two hundred Americans had 
been killed and wounded; the losses of the British were at 
least three hundred. The swords tendered by the captured 
British officers were immediately returned by Macdonough, 
who assured them that they had earned the right to wear 
them. 

Ex-President Roosevelt, in his Naval War of 1812, says: 
"Sir George Prevost and his army at once fled in great 
haste and confusion back to Canada, leaving our northern 
frontier clear for the remainder of the war; while the vic- 
tory had a great effect on the negotiations for peace." 




MEDAL COMMEMORATING THE VICTORY OP THE CONSTITUTION 

Sea Fights. — With their unnumbered ships British 
officers laughed at the small navy of the United States, 
whose fifteen vessels were ridiculed as "fir-built things with 
a bit of striped bunting at their mastheads." Before the 
war was over, these vessels inflicted upon the British navy 
a series of defeats such as it had never before known. 
American victories began early and continued even after 
the end of the war. One of the most famous of these sea 
fights was that won in August, 1812, by the frigate Consti- 
tution, still popularly called "Old Ironsides,"^ over the 

' Read Old Ironsides, a fine lyric, by Oliver Wendell Holmes. 



268 MADISUI^'8 ADMINISTRATION 

British frigate Guerriere (gar-yair'), which was too badly 
crippled to be brought to port.^ 

Peace. — During the War of 1812 England was engaged 
by the activities of Napoleon and therefore sent to America 
but a small part of her army and navy.- Russia seems to 
have made it plain to her British ally that more progress 
could be made against Napoleon if England would make 
peace with the United States, and she offered to act as 
mediator, but this offer, accepted by the United States, 
was declined by Great Britain. Instead England offered 
to treat directly with America. To meet British repre- 
sentatives at Ghent, in Belgium, the President sent five 
eminent Americans. On December 24, 1814, they agreed 
on terms of peace, but in the treaty nothing was said about 
the causes of the war. 

1 On a moonlight night in a tempestuous sea the Wasp so disabled the 
British sloop Frolic that when the latter was boarded the victorious Ameri- 
cans found only the man at the wheel and three wounded officers. In turn 
the little Wasp was pursued and captured by the British frigate Poicliers 
(pwah-tya')- The Macedonian was brought in triumph to Newport, 
Rhode Island, by the frigate United States. The Java was rendered useless 
by the fire of the Constitution. In 1813 the list of victories grew. The 
Hornet disabled the British sloop Peacock, which sank after her surrender. 
In a well-contested fight between the Enterprise and the British brig Boxer, 
off Portland, Maine, both commanders were killed, and, wrapped in their 
respective flags, were buried in that city in the same cemetery. One of the 
defeats of that era was that of the unfortunate Chesapeake, which while being 
refitted in Boston was invited out of the harbor by the British frigate 
Shannon. In the circumstances Captain Lawrence should have declined 
the challenge. In the fight he was mortally wounded, and, while being 
carried below, he cried: "Don't give up the ship; keep her guns going; 
fight her till she sinks; " but the British finally won the victory. The Argus, 
while capturing merchant vessels, was destroyed by the British brig Pelican. 
After a successful cruise along both coasts of South America the Essex, 
commanded by Captain Porter, was captured in March, 1814, by the 
Cherub and the Phoebe, two British frigates. The President, commanded by 
Commodore Decatur, was captured in January, 1815, by a British squadron 
of four vessels. In February, 1815, the Constitution, Captain Charles 
Stewart, when near Madeira, captured both the Cyane and the Levant. 

2 There were more than 70,000 British soldiers at Waterloo; but fewer 
than 15,000 at Plattsburg or at New Orleans. 



RESULTS OF THE WAR 269 

Results of the War. — The war convmced other nations 
that America had become a great sea power; it produced at 
home a strong national feeling, and put an end to the old 
dependence upon Europe. Tidings of the treaty of peace 
reached New York on February 11, 1815, but before that 
news had come two events of importance had taken place, 
namely, a meeting of certain delegates at Hartford, Connec- 
ticut, and a great defeat of the British at New Orleans. 

The Hartford Convention. — The long embargo and the 
non-intercourse acts had greatly injured New England, 
which was the commercial section of the nation. In that 
part of the Union the Federalists were still influential and 
their power was often used to embarrass the national govern- 
ment. Delegates from the New England States met during 
December, 1814, in secret session at Hartford. This 
assembly has always been thought disloyal. It proposed 
certain amendments of the Constitution, and recommended 
state armies to defend New England, such forces to be sup- 
ported by the general government. If Congress did not 
agree to this program, another convention was to be called 
in June, 1815. But before the commissioners reached 
Washington to present the plan of the convention they 
heard of the treaty signed at Ghent, and immediately made 
their way home amid the jeers of the nation. 

The Battle of New Orleans. — About the time, Decem- 
ber, 1814, that the Federalists met in convention at Hart- 
ford, a powerful British force, estimated at from 10,000 to 
12,000 veterans, landed in southeastern Louisiana and 
advanced toward New Orleans, which was defended by 
General Jackson with an army about half as large. On 
January 8, 1815, the British General, Pakenham, assaulted 
the American defenses, but Jackson's backwoodsmen were 
expert marksmen and his artillery was skillfully handled. 
In less than half an hour the British fled from the terrible 



270 GOVERNMENT BY THE REPUBLICANS 

artillery and rifle fire, leaving behind them more than 2000 
in killed, wounded, and captured. Among the slain was 
General Pakenham himself. The American loss was six 
killed and seven wounded. 

If there had been an Atlantic cable in those days, this 
bloody battle would never have occurred, for the treaty of 
Ghent had been concluded fifteen days before. 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — Why did Jefferson make removals from 
office? Describe tiie manner of acquiring the Louisiana territory. 
Who explored it? What other things were done in Jefferson's first 
term? Under what circumstances was Hamilton killed? Name 
some of the important inventions between 1790 and 1810. What 
men built steamboats before the time of Fulton ? 

Describe Burr's project. How was Tripoli brought to terms? 
What European powers were at war in the beginning of the nineteenth 
century? How did each treat the United States? What were the 
decrees of Napoleon and the orders in council ? Describe the affair of 
the Leopard and the Chesapeake. What was the embargo? Why 
was war declared against England rather than France? Enumerate 
the causes of the War of 1812. What President followed Jefferson? 
Explain the failure of the American plan of campaign. What was the 
result of the battle of Lake Erie? Tell the story of the capture of 
Washington; also of the attack on Baltimore. Describe the battle 
of Lake Champlain and state its importance. How did Captain 
Lawrence meet his death? What is said of the Hartford convention? 
Give an account of Jackson's victory at New Orleans. 

References. — Morse, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams (Ameri- 
can Statesmen); Roosevelt, Naval War of 1812; Gay, James Madison 
(American Statesmen); Henry Adams, A History of the United States; 
McMaster, History of the People of the United States, Vol. IL 



CHAPTER XXII 
GROWTH OF THE WEST; ERA OF GOOD FEELING 

Government Land Policy. — The first public land owned 
by the United States was obtained by cessions from certain 
states (p. 219), including much of the land between the 
Allegheny Mountains and the Mississippi River. Later 
acquisitions included also most of the land west of the 
Mississippi. At first Congress sold the public land only in 
large tracts and to the highest bidder. Under that system 
nobody except the rich could buy directly from the govern- 
ment. But Congress soon came to take a very different 
view. Accordingly, under a law passed in 1800, it was 
made easier to secure a share of the public land. For $2 
an acre one could purchase a half section, namely 320 
acres. This $640 could be paid in four yearly instalments. 
In 1820 Congress reduced the price of land to $1.25 per 
acre and made it possible for a person to buy 80 acres. 
Under a law so liberal even the poorest citizen could own a 
farm. These wise laws had much to do with the growth 
and prosperity of our country. 

Routes to the Northwest. — Settlers going from Phila- 
delphia to Pittsburgh followed the military road built dur- 
ing the French and Indian War. Over this route vast 
quantities of merchandise were carried every year, and also 
many emigrants. In about twenty days travelers arrived 
in Pittsburgh. Then, if going farther, they put their goods 
on a flatboat and drifted down the Ohio to the points at 
which they expected to settle. From Baltimore the route 
led to Cumberland; thence over the mountains to Pitts- 
burgh or to Wheeling. Emigrants from states south of 

271 



272 



GROWTH OF THE WEST 



Maryland made the westward journey through Cunil:)er- 
land Gap along Boone's Wilderness Road. Sometimes the 
Kanaw^ha route to the Ohio was chosen. New Englanders 
made their way up the Mohawk Valley to central New 
York. From there they could pass along the Genesee 




■^ '^ t^rAW '''"'^''^ ^° Piit^bur^i, 20Dfys 




OVER THE MOUNTAINS TO PITTSBURGH 

turnpike to Lake Erie. But not all emigrants from the 
Eastern States went into the Northwest Territory. Many 
of the pioneers cleared forests, built mills, and began towns 
in western New York. 

Westward Movement of Population. — The cheap lands 
and, after 1800, the dullness in trade which became marked 
after 1815, drove thousands of people into the West. All 
the highways leading thither were crowded with emigrants. 
Some took their possessions in rude wagons built by them- 
selves, while others used wheelbarrows or handcarts. Be- 
cause of this movement of population the West advanced 
rapidly in importance, while many parts of the East 
remained at a standstill. 

The Log Cabin. — When the newcomer arrived in the 
West, he claimed a piece of land and at once began to clear 



LIFE OF THE PIONEER 273 

a part of it. Until he could build something better he might 
put up a small shed rooted with saplings and bark, and 
walled on three sides, the fourth being open to the weather. 
Near the open side he would build his hre. As soon as 
practicable he began work upon a log cabin. Logs of the 
proper size were notched near the ends and put into place 
for the four walls. If he had neighl)ors, they all came to 
assist at what they called the "raising," and they generally 
finished his cabin in the course of a single day. Spaces 
were left for a door and for small windows. Clay and moss 
were packed between the logs to keep out both wind and 
rain. There was a large fireplace in every log cabin. Like 
the rest of the house the chimney was built of logs plas- 
tered inside with clay, but at the bottom it was lined with 
stones. Oiled or greased paper was used instead of win- 
dow glass. The rude door, swinging on wooden hinges, 
was fastened inside by a wooden bolt or latch, which could 
be raised from the outside by a leather string passed through 
a hole in the door. When the latchstring was out, any one 
could enter; therefore in such a position it came to be 
regarded as a sign of hospitality. 

Life of the Pioneer. — Many interesting tales have been 
told of the trials of the pioneer. If the settler took up a 
forested tract, he had to begin at once to cut down the 
underbrush and as soon as possible to kill the large trees by 
girdhng. When the trees had been felled, the neighbors 
helped him to roll the trunks to piles for burning. From 
the ashes thus obtained he made potash, for which it was 
not difficult to find a market. 

On his stump-covered clearing, the pioneer began to 
break up the ground, and, in season, to plant corn, wheat, 
and vegetables. After he had husked and shelled his corn, 
if he did not take it on horseback to a distant mill, he 
pounded it by hand in a wooden mortar with a wooden 



274 



GROWTH OF THE WEST 




DUTCH OVEN 



pestle. The baking, though sometimes attended to in an 
outside oven, was often done in a Dutch oven on the hearth. 
Cooking stoves were not used. 

Deerskins in the early days and in later times homemade 

linen, jeans, woolens, 
and linseys were the 
chief materials for cloth- 
ing. It was long before 
store goods came in. 

Political Importance 
of the West. — Thus 
far we have heard much 
of the Eastern States 
(New England), of the 
Middle States, and of 
the South. Hereafter we shall hear something of the West. 
A result of the great movements of population just men- 
tioned was that the western territories were filling up, and, 
as separate states, were being admitted into the Union. 
Thus in the short space of five years the following states 
were added: Indiana (1816), Mississippi (1817), Illinois 
(1818), Alabama (1819), Missouri (1821). Louisiana had 
already been admitted (1812). 

The Second United States Bank. -^ We have already seen 
that in 1811, when the United States Bank applied for a 
new charter, it was refused. During the war the finances 
were not so well managed as in the period from 1791 to 
1811. Between 1811 and 1816 the people were compelled 
to get along with state banks, — that is, banks chartered 
by states, — of which more than a hundred sprang into 
existence. Some of the paper notes issued by these state 
banks were not redeemed on demand, and therefore did not 
have the purchasing power of gold and silver coins. To 
correct this situation, Congress in 1816 established the 



■RISE OF MANUFACTURERS 275 

second Bank of the United States, which issued a uniform 
currency and assisted the government in collecting its in- 
come and paying its debts. 

Rise of Manufactures. — During the war between France 
and England much of their carrying trade fell to American 
shipowners, who began rapidly to grow rich. The long 
embargo and the non-intercourse acts, however, put an end 
to this prosperity. Many of the shipowners then invested 
their profits in factories. At first water power and then 
steam was used to turn mill wheels. It was considered 
patriotic, says the historian McMaster, 'Ho wear American- 
made clothes, walk in American-made shoes, write on 
American-made paper, and use American-made furniture." 

Because of the embargo and the war, Americans had to 
use up their iron, and wool, and cotton, or let them go 
unused. Clothing and tools and machinery were needed 
at home, and as these could not be obtained from outside, 
the American people found a way to make them. The 
efforts of New Englanders were remarkably successful. In 
1807 the cotton mills of that section had 8000 spindles, 
whereas by the end of the war they had 500,000 and gave 
employment to 100,000 persons. Woolen and iron manu- 
factures also prospered. 

A Protective Tariff. — The tariff act of 1812 made the 
duties higher than ever before. But the European wars, 
which closed the markets, filled the warehouses of England 
to overflowing; and when peace came, fleets with English 
goods arrived at American ports and offered them for sale 
at low prices. To keep out such foreign articles and pro- 
tect American goods from European competition. Congress 
raised the tariff in 1816, but some thought that the duties 
were still too low. In 1824 Henry Clay became the cham- 
pion of the protective tariff policy, which he named the 
American System. In that year, after a long struggle, a 



270 THf: ERA OF GOOD FEELING 

new tariff act was passed. At first the South favored the 
idea of a protective tariff, but later became most deter- 
mined in its opposition. The North, especially New Eng- 
land, was divided in opinion, but in time came to favor the 
principle of protection. 

Signs of Prosperity. — Prosperity was not confined to 
manufactures. In the years following the war there could 
be seen various signs of improvement. In many places 
bridges spanned streams that hitherto had been forded. 
There were built thousands of miles of good roads called 
turnpikes. This made travel by stagecoach more comfort- 
able and the delivery of merchandise more prompt. Manu- 
facturing and commerce turned quiet towns into busy cities 
and also led to the building of new towns. Academies and 
colleges were increasing in number. Of these institutions 
nearly two score had })een founded by 1820. 

The Era of Good Feeling (1817-1825) 

Election of Monroe. — In the election of 1816 James 
Monroe, a Virginian, defeated Rufus King, the presidential 
candidate of the Federalist party. The successful candi- 
date, like his predecessor Madison, was a friend of Jefferson 
and a member of the Republican party. Like Jefferson, too, 
he had been educated at the College of William and Mary. 

In 1820 Monroe was reelected almost without opposi- 
tion. But one electoral vote was cast against him. The 
Federalists, made unpopular during the late war, had not 
even named any candidate. Monroe's presidency was 
called "the era of good feeling," but it was not well named. 
His two terms are chiefly memorable because of disputes 
over Florida, the sectional quarrel which arose on the 
application of Missouri for admission as a state, and the 
announcement in American foreign policy of a principle 
known as the Monroe Doctrine. 



SLAVERY NORTH AND SOUTH 277 

Florida Acquired. — The Seminole Indians, vviio tlwelt 
in Florida, had long been troubling the frontier of Georgia. 
Spain, which owned Florida, was either unable or unwiUing 
to keep them in order. It was in such circumstances that 
General Andrew Jackson invaded that territory in pursuit 
of marauders. His conduct was criticized in Congress as 
well as in the Cabinet, but the matter was settled by treaty 
in 1819, when the United States agreed to purchase Florida 
from Spain for $5,000,000. The same treaty fixed the 
boundary between Mexico and the United States. Mon- 
roe thus gave up the American claim to Texas, but gained 
the Spanish claim to Oregon. 

Slavery in the North. — Before the Revolutionary War 
all the colonies had negro slaves. For bringing Africans to 
America the settlers of the North were no less responsible 
than those of the South. In neither section did the ma- 
jority of the people see anything wrong in the institution 
of human slavery. In time, however, it was discovered in 
the Northern colonies that there was almost nothing which 
negro slaves could do that could not be done better and 
more cheaply by white men. In a word, negro labor was 
no longer thought profitable. When that belief became 
general, slavery was not difficult to abolish. Beginning 
with Massachusetts in 1780, state after state in the North 
put an end to it. 

Slavery in the South. — In the South the history of 
slavery was very different. Unskilled labor, which was 
unsatisfactory in the North, was in demand everywhere 
south of Mason and Dixon's line to cultivate cotton, to- 
bacco, and rice. Chiefly to please South Carolina and 
Georgia the framers of the Constitution permitted the 
importation of Africans for a period of twenty years; that 
is, until January 1, 1808. After that day, by act of Con- 
gress, no negroes could be imported. But even though by 



278 THE ERA OF GOOD FEELING 

a compromise slaves could be brought into the country for 
twenty years, in Virginia and in some other Southern states 
the institution was not popular. 

Why Slavery Grew. — Washington, Jefferson, and other 
Southern statesmen expected that slavery would gradually 
disappear, but mighty forces were at work that fastened it 
firmly on their part of the republic. The first of these was 
Whitney's invention in 1793 of the cotton "gin " (engine). 




AN OLD-TIME COTTON GIN 

This made it easy to separate the seed from the fiber of the 
cotton plant, and thus overcame one of the chief difficulties 
in the way of producing great quantities. Moreover, the 
use in England of steam-driven machinery for spinning and 
weaving made it possible to manufacture immense quanti- 
ties of cotton cloth. The English demand for raw cotton 
rapidly grew greater, and to meet it more slaves were 
needed. To the South slavery meant not only wealth but 
also an increase of political power, because three fifths of 



THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE 279 

the slaves were counted as population, and the greater the 
population the greater the number of members in the House 
of Representatives. 

Signs of Discord. — The struggle over slavery was really 
a contest for political power. It was important to each 
section that the other should not outstrip it in the matter of 
representation in Congress. This v/ill explain why Indiana, 
a free state, admitted in 1816, v/as balanced in 1817 by the 
admission of Mississippi, a slave state, and how in 1819 
Alabama had been made a state to offset Illinois, which as 
a free state had entered the Union in 1818. In 1819 there 
were eleven free states and eleven slaveholding states. 
The boundary between them was formed in part bj' the 
Ohio River and in part by the Mason and Dixon line. 

The Missouri Compromise. — In 1819 Congress was 
asked to admit Missouri into the Union. That territory, 
which was a part of the Louisiana purchase, had received 
many slaveholding settlers from Kentucky. -On the other 
hand, much of the territory was farther north than the 
Ohio. The North believed that the line which separated 
free and slave states east of the Mississippi should be 
continued west of it. Representative Tallmadge, of New 
York, proposed an amendment to the bill for the admission 
of Missouri which would prohibit slavery in the proposed 
state. The modified measure passed the House, but the 
amendment was struck out by the Senate. The adjourn- 
ment of Congress defeated the bill. 

At the next session of Congress, the Missouri Com- 
promise of 1820 was adopted instead of the Tallmadge 
amendment. That state was admitted with permission to 
establish slavery, but slavery was forever prohibited in all 
the remainder of the Louisiana purchase north of 36°30', the 
southern boundary of Missouri. To balance the slave state 
of Missouri, Maine entered the Union as a free state; it 



THE MONROE DOCTRINE 



281 



was fonnerly a district of Massachusetts. This compromise 

was ably supported by Henry Clay; but in the long and* 

bitter struggle over Missouri sectional passions had been 

stirred up which for two 

score years never passed 

into forgetfulness and 

which in the end were 

set at rest only by the 

sword. 

The Holy Alliance.- 
Spain had suffered from 
the wars against Napo- 
leon. When, after his 
defeat at Waterloo, 
peace was established 
(1815) and she began to 
consider the state of hoi- 
colonies in America, she 
found that from Louisi- 
ana to Cape Horn the 
more important of them had thrown off her government 
and had set up republican systems of their own. Feeling 
unequal to the task of winning them back, she invited the 
Holy Alliance, that is, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and France, 
to assist her in recovering them. The United States, how- 
ever, had already acknowledged the independence of the 
Spanish-American republics. Russia was establishing trad- 
ing posts along the Pacific coast of North America and had 
one as far south as Bodega Bay in what is now California. 
When asked to leave, by Mexico, she declined. 

The Monroe Doctrine. — In his message to Congress, 
December 2, 1823, the President stated that "the American 
continents . . . are henceforth not to he considered as subjects 
for future colonization by any European powers.'^ This part 




HENRY CLAY 



282 THE ERA OF GOOD FEELING 

of the message had reference to the Russian settlements. 
* Another part of the message referred to the purpose of the 
Holy Alhance to assist Spain in recovering her colonies.' 
The United States, said the President, had not interfered 
in the affairs of Europe and did not propose to do so. After 
mentioning the fact that the governmental systems of 
Europe were different from those of America, he added, 
"we should consider any attempt on their part to extend their 
system to any portion of this hemisphere, as dangerous to our 
peace and safety." This was as much as to say that any 
attempt to change the free states of Spanish America back 
to colonies of Spain would be deemed by the United States 
a hostile act. These declarations by the President against 
(a) the establishment of new colonies in America and (h) 
against any attempts forcibly to change the forms of govern- 
ment in the western hemisphere, are known as the Monroe 
Doctrine. As England supported the United States, the 
allies attempted nothing. The Russian Czar consented to 
make 54° 40' the southern limit of Alaska. 

Political Parties.^ — Soon after 1820 the Federalist party 
disappeared, and nearly everybody belonged to the Re- 
pubhcan party. From 1800 to 1820 presidential candi- 
dates had been nominated by Congressional caucuses. 
Later, candidates for President were named by state legis- 

1 Though Washington had been chosen President by all the electors, 
there grew up before his retirement from office marked opposition to his 
foreign as well as his domestic policy. The pupil is aware that John Adams, 
like Washington, was supported by the Federalists. That party favored a 
strong national government, a national bank, internal improvements at 
federal expense, and a good navy. On the other hand, the Republicans, 
followers of Jefferson, were opposed to a strong national government, to the 
United States Bank, to internal improvements at federal expense, and to a 
large navy. In the war between England and France the Federalists 
favored neutrality, while the Republicans would have had the United States 
interfere on the side of France. Most of the Republicans were opposed to 
the protective tariff, while New England, the home of the Federalists, 
approved the principle of protection. 



THE ELECTION OF 1824 283 

latures, and not till after 1830 were they chosen by national 
nominating conventions as they are to-day. In 1824 the 
Congressional caucus nominated William H. Crawford. 
Other candidates were John Quincy Adams, the favorite of 
New England, Henry Clay, the choice of the Middle West 
and the Northwest, and Andrew Jackson, whose strength 
lay in the South and the Southwest. When the electoral 
votes were counted, it was found that they were divided 
as follows: Andrew Jackson, 99; John Quincy Adams, 84; 
William H. Crawfoid, 41; Henry Clay, 37; total, 261. 

As no candidate received a majority (131), the electoral 
college had failed to choose a President. In such a case the 
Constitution (Amendment XII) provides that it is the duty 
of the House of Representatives, voting by states, to select 
one from the three highest on the list. There were then 
24 states. Adams received the support of a majority (13), 
was declared President, and was duly inaugurated in 1825. 
John C. Calhoun had been chosen Vice President by the 
electoral college. 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — Describe the government's land policy. 
What forced people to go to the West? Give an account of the 
pioneer's home and his daily life. What led Americans to begin 
manufacturing? Discuss the protective tariff. How was Florida 
acquired ? 

What different views of slavery were held by the North and the 
South? What invention gave a great impetus to slavery in the 
South ? What was the Missouri Compromise ? 

What are the two principles included in the Monroe Doctrine? 
Describe the presidential election of 1824. Why was Jackson not 
chosen by the vote in the electoral college? 

References. ^ Henderson, American Diplomatic Questions; Sum- 
ner, Aiidrciv Jackson, and Schurz, Henry Clay; (American Statesmen); 
Peck, The Jacksonian Epoch; Stanwood, A History of the Presidency. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

THE JACKSONIAN EPOCH 

" Bargain and Corruption." — The friends of Jackson 
were grievously disappointed by his defeat in 1824; for, as 
we have seen, he had received a pluraHty of the electoral 
votes, though not a majority. They asserted that he was 
the choice of the people and that he had lost the presidency 
merely because of a bargain. In the 
House of Representatives, they said. Clay 
was to persuade his friends to vote for 
Adams; in return, Adams was to appoint 
Clay to the chief place in his Cabinet. 
It is certain that no such agreement had 
been made, although Adams did appoint 
Clay Secretary of State. Indeed, in the 
long line of American statesmen few have 

JOHN QUINCY ADAMS ° i , t i /-> • * i 

been equal to John Qumcy Adams m 
point of ability, and in the matter of integrity still fewer. 
After 1824, however, Jackson hated Clay and all his works.^ 
An Unsuccessful Administration. — As might have been 
expected from his character and intelligence, Adams was 
an able and upright President; but he accomplished little. 
Those admirers of Jackson who criticized the administra- 
tion were left in undisturbed enjoyment of their offices; 
Adams probably believed them too insignificant for either 
contempt or punishment. From places made secure by 
this policy his enemies were ever attacldng and misrepre- 

' An inquiry by Congress proved that the charge against Adams was 
baseless and was merely an awkward invention of partisan malice. Jack- 
son, however, liked to Ijclieve its truth. 

284 




PRESIDENT JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 285 

senting him. For the wise measures he urged upon ('on- 
gress, Adams found Httle support and seldom was honored 
by even a decent consideration of his recommendations. 
Thus it happened that during his term no administration 
measure was passed, while in his broad foreign policy he 
was also thwarted by Congress. 

Rise of New Parties. — By this time the party of Jeffer- 
son was split into two hostile factions. The Jackson men 
claimed to be Democratic Republicans of the Jeffersonian 
type; the anti-Jackson men, led by Adams and Clay, called 
themselves National Republicans. From these factions 
there soon took shape two new political parties, known 
respectively as Democrats and Whigs. 

The Tariff of 1828. — The protective tariff of 1824 
resulted in some public benefits, but also aroused much 
opposition. In 1828 it was replaced by a new tariff, which 
laid still higher duties. This measure was severely criti- 
cized, especially in the South, where it was called the Tariff 
of Abominations. Indeed, that section talked of nullifying 
the law and even of seceding from the Union. A protective 
tariff, many Southerners declared, was unconstitutional, 
oppressive, and unjust. 

Election of 1828. — Adams had few of the arts of popu- 
larity. In fact, he had not been long in office before he was 
•greatly disliked. In his manner he was stiff, harsh, and 
cold. He made enemies, it is said, at almost every turn. 
On the other hand, Jackson, who had neither the lofty ideals 
nor the training of the President, far outstripped him in all 
the little arts of electioneering. For three years the "Hero 
of New Orleans " was the central figure at public dinners 
and receptions. In one view his qualities were suggested 
by the affectionate nickname "Old Hickory," and in another 
by the description the "Man of the People." The new 
democracy of the new West were convinced that he was 



286 



THE JACKSONIAN EPOCH 



brave, patriotic, and virtuous; above all, that he was 
opposed to the existence of any privileged class. Add 
to all this the fact that his military renown had grown hourly 
since his remarkable victory at New Orleans, and one sees 
that he was a strong candidate for the high office that he 
sought. Adams, who had confidence in the advantages of 
his own excellent record, did nothing to promote his re- 
election. Therefore, when the electoral votes were counted 

in 1828, it was found that 
President Adams had not 
received half as many as 
General Jackson. 

Inauguration of Jackson. 
— "The inauguration," says 
the historian McMaster, 
"was of the simplest kind. 
Uncovered, on foot, escorted 
by the committee in charge, 
and surrounded on both sides 
by gigs, wood wagons, hacks 
full of women and children, 
and followed by thousands 
of men from all parts of the 
country, Jackson walked from his hotel to the Capitol 
and on the east portico took the oath of office. A wild 
rush was then made by the people to shake his hand. 
With difficulty the President reached a horse and started 
for the White House 'pursued by a motley concourse of 
people, riding, running helter-skelter, striving who should 
first gain admittance.' " Relating the unusual events 
of that day, Daniel Webster, an eyewitness, says: "At 
the White House the crowd upset the pails of punch, 
broke the glasses, and stood with their muddy boots on the 
satin-covered chairs to see the people's President." 




ANDREW JACKSON 



PRESIDENT JACKSON; THE SPOILS SYSTEM 287 

The Spoils System. — The thousands who thronged the 
lodging houses antl the hotels of Washington had not all 
gone thither merely to witness the spectacle of an inaugura- 
tion. Many were on hand to seek offices. Though there 
were not places enough for all, Jackson adopted a policy 
that provided for many. His future interests were secured 
by the appointment to office of the editors who had sup- 
ported him during his campaign. If any such friend was 
unable to find a position, he was rewarded with some of the 
public printing. In the course of a few weeks hundreds of 
clerks and others were turned out to make room for the 
President's friends. 

Until 1829 officeholders had seldom been dismissed except 
for cause; but within a year Jackson made more than 2000 
removals. It mattered not that a clerk had grown old in 
the service, or that he had always satisfactorily performed 
his duties. The President maintained that no special fitness 
was required to perform the work of those who had been 
removed. In all these changes his aim was to reward by 
appointment to office those who had worked for his election. 
To provide places for so many, it was necessary to make 
many removals. When the new practice was attacked in 
Congress, Senator Marcy, of New York, declared that in 
his state men saw nothing wrong in the doctrine that "to 
the victors belong the spoils of office." 

In making appointments the public welfare was forgotten. 
Many of the men named by Jackson and his friends were 
unworthy, and for a time the government service was badly 
crippled by his official conduct. Established in 1829, the 
"spoils system" flourished unchecked for more than fifty 
years. 

Nullification. — Within a year President Jackson had 
more serious business on hand than the distribution of 
offices among his followers. The ' ' Tariff of Abominations " 



288 



THE JACKSONIAN EPOCH 



called forth protests from several of the Southern States. 
In Charleston, South Carolina, flags were displayed at 
half-mast and people were urged not to buy the merchan- 
dise of the North. John C. Calhoun and other leaders in 
South Carolina believed that the law should be nullified. 
He claimed among other things: (1) that the tariff was 

ruinous to the South; (2) that the 
principle of protection was uncon- 
stitutional; that is. Congress had 
no right, under the Constitution, 
to levy protective duties; (3) that 
in the case of an act plainly uncon- 
stitutional and clearly injurious any 
state had a right peacefully to nul- 
lify the law within her borders. 

In January, 1830, the Southern 
view was ably presented to Con- 
gress by Senator Hayne. Still more 
ably did Daniel Webster in two 
great orations prove the absurdity 
of nullification as a remedy and 
state the principle of nationality. 
Webster held that there is no 
middle ground between submission 
to the law and resistance; the 
latter, he declared, is rebellion. 
From that time forth there was an 
unceasing conflict between the idea of the sovereignty of 
the several States and the sovereignty of the Nation. So 
alarmed were the friends of the tariff at the earnestness of 
the South that in 1832 Congress decided to reduce the 
duties on imports. 

Nullification Attempted. — Though duties had been 
lowered, South Carolina held out against the law, for it 




DANIKL WEBSTER 



NULLIFICATION 289 

still contained the principle of protection. Delegates were 
chosen in that state to a convention which adopted an 
Ordinance of Nullification forbidding the collection of 
tariff duties in South Carolina after February 1, 1833. 

Without delay Jackson accepted the challenge of the 
South Carolina convention by strengthening the garrison 
at Fort Moultrie in Charleston harbor. In a short time it 
became known that he had resolved to meet nullification 
with force. In December, 1832, when Congress assembled, 
he asked for a law to enable him to collect the revenue by 
force if it should be necessary. 

In the debate on the proposed Force Act, Calhoun, who 
had resigned the vice presidency to become a senator from 
South Carolina, defended nullification and claimed that it 
was not only a peaceful and lawful remedy but a perfectly 
proper exercise of state rights. Webster declared that 
nullification and secession were rebellion. In this dis- 
cussion with Webster, Calhoun fared no better than had 
Hayne in the earlier argument. 

The Compromise of 1833. — To uphold the government 
the Force Act was passed by Congress, but as South Caro- 
lina repealed the Ordinance of Nullification, it was not 
necessary for Jackson to use it. The South Carolina 
leaders, however, did not repeal their ordinance until 
Congress had passed a bill satisfactory to them. The 
Compromise of 1833, as this measure is called, was intro- 
duced by Henry Clay. It provided that the tariff of 1832 
should be gradually reduced till 1842, when all duties should 
be twenty per cent on the value of the imported articles. 

Jackson Reelected. — In the midst of contests over the 
tariff and other questions, Jackson was reelected in 1832, 
by a greater majority than before. His opponent was 
Henry Clay, nominated by a convention of the National 
Hcpublicans, or Wliigs, as he called them. The Jackson 



290 THE JACKSONIAN EPOCH 

men were called "Tories," but they indignantly rejected the 
epithet and took the name Democrats. This Democratic 
party, which has continued till the present time, was the 
same as the Republican party founded by Jefferson. 

The United States Bank. — The Second United States 
Bank, chartered in 1816 (page 274), estabhshed branch 
banks in many of the large cities of the country. Though 
its charter would not expire till 1836, its president was 
persuaded to apply earlier for a renewal of the charter. 
This brought on with Jackson one of the most bitter con- 
troversies in our history. The Bank had great power over 
the business of the nation, but it had used its power for the 
public welfare. It was also possible for the Bank to exer- 
cise great power in politics, but at that time it had not done 
so. The danger Jackson clearly saw, the benefits he does 
not appear to have appreciated. In 1832 a bill to renew 
the charter passed Congress, but it was vetoed by President 
Jackson. 

Removal of the Deposits. — In the presidential election 
of 1832 the chief issue was "Jackson or the Bank." Ac- 
cordingly his success seemed to the President like an ap- 
proval of his purpose to destroy the Bank. Under a new 
Secretary of the Treasury the United States revenue was 
deposited in a number of state banks called "pet banks," 
while drafts for federal expenses were drawn against the 
money in the United States Bank. In this way in a short 
time the public deposits in that bank were all withdrawn. 

Treatment of the Indians. — When Jackson became 
President, Indian tribes owned much of the best lands in 
Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia. The white 
man longed for possession of those lands; the red man was 
anxious to keep them. To the Indians the President gave 
the choice either of obeying the laws of the state in which 
they lived and remaining on so much of their lands as they 



FINANCIAL QUESTIONS 291 

could use or of giving up their grounds east of the Missis- 
sippi for territory to the west of that river. When, in 
1830, Congress appropriated money so that they could 
exchange their old hunting grounds for Western tracts, 
most of the tribes agreed to that arrangement, though force 
had to be used against the Cherokees. By 1840, however, 
most of the Indian nations of the South were settled in the 
country afterward known as the Indian Territory. 

Payment of the National Debt. — The national del)t was 
being rapidly paid off when by the War of 1812 it was once 
more increased. The era following the Treaty of Cdient 
(1814) was for the most part a season of prosperity. During 
those years the government was in receipt of a large revenue 
and its business was carefully managed. This enabled 
President Jackson in 1835 to pay off the last penny of the 
public debt. 

The Surplus Revenue. — The income of the government 
remained about the same, though the outgo was less. This 
condition left in the "pet banks " a growing surplus of 
money belonging to the government. On January 1, 1837, 
it amounted to $42,468,000. Of this sum Congress re- 
solved to keep $5,000,000 on deposit, and to loan the 
remainder, $37,468,000, to the states. The money was to 
be paid to the states in four equal installments, but only 
three of them were paid when the panic of 1837 upset the 
business of the whole country. 

The Panic of 1837. — Some of the "pet banks" were 
carelessl}^ managed and often on doubtful security loaned 
money (coin or bank notes), to those who desired to borrow. 
Other banks still more recklessly managed, "wildcat banks " 
as they were called, sprang up in great number and issued 
many bank notes, thus making it still easier to borrow 
money. This encouraged people to speculate in public 
lands, in other real estate, and in all kinds of enterprises. 



292 THE JACKSONIAN EPOCH 

The situation was not improved when, in July, 1836, 
President Jackson issued a "Specie Circular" ordering 
land offices to accept in payment for public lands only gold 
and silver. This was the same as a notice to the nation 
that much of the paper money in use — namely, the notes 
of banks — was of doubtful value. When called on to 
redeem their notes in gold and silver, some banks had to 
call for the payment of the loans they had made. Some of 
the borrowers could not pay. Soon the banks were unable 
to redeem their notes, and in a little while a panic swept 
over the country. Nobody would lend money. Factories 
and mills were forced to shut down, commercial houses 
closed their doors, workmen were without employment and 
even without food. In New York there were bread riots. 

The Election of 1836. — In a Democratic convention, 
which met on May 20, 1835, Martin Van Buren, the close 
friend of President Jackson, was unanimously nominated 
for the presidency. The Whigs held no national conven- 
tion, but various state conventions nominated William 
Henry Harrison, of Ohio, and Daniel Webster, of Massa- 
chusetts. When the result was announced, it was found 
that Van Buren had been elected.^ 

The Sub treasury. — The panic of 1837 occurred during 
Van Buren's administration, but it was either caused or 
hastened by Jackson's measures. Whatever may have 
been the faults of the United States Bank it had been a 
safer depository of government money than the ''pet 
banks " proved to be. This condition forced President 
Van Buren to find a substitute. He was convinced that 
the time had come when the United States government 
should collect, keep, and, when required, pay out its revenue 

1 The electoral college having failed to give a majority to any candidate 
for Vice President, t!ie United States Senate elected the chief Democratic 
candidate, Richard M. Johnson, to that office. 



VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION 293 

without the assistance of any bank. He therefore per- 
suaded Congress to establish the Independent Treasury or, 
as it is generally called, the Subtreasury system. Vaults 
were built in Washington and in other cities in which, 
under the supervision of the Treasury, were kept the reve- 
nues of the federal government. 

The " Patriot War " in Canada. — During the adminis- 
tration of President Van Buren what is known as the 
"Patriot War" broke out in Canada. Many Americans 
assisted the people across the border in an attempted revolu- 
tion. The Canadian rebels seized Navy Island, in the Niag- 
ara River, and there set up a government. Considerable 
supplies came from Buffalo and other places on the Ameri- 
can side of the river. By compelling Americans to remain 
neutral, Van Buren made himself unpopular with many. 

The Abolition Movement. — In the beginning of the 
nineteenth century most of the societies working to secure 
the aboUtion of slavery were in the South. Afterw^ard, 
when similar associations began to spring up in the North, 
those in the South disappeared. In 1833 delegates from 
many antislavery societies met in Philadelphia and formed 
the American Anti-Slavery Society. By such organizations 
the South, which at that time had a great majority of the 
negro slaves, was flooded with pictures, handbills, and news- 
papers designed to stir up a feeling against human servitude 
and to free the slaves. In many Northern cities, which 
disliked sectional strife, mobs rudely broke up antislavery 
meetings. At Alton, Uliiiois, Elijah Lovejoy, an antislav- 
ery leader, was killed by a mob while he was defending his 
printing press. In 1839 an abolition party convention at 
Warsaw, New York, nominated James G. Bimey for Pres- 
ident.^ 

' Bimey had edited an Abolition newspaper in Alabama, and later in Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio, where, in 1835, his printing office was twice sacked by mobs. 



294 



THE JACKSONIAN EPOCH 



The Election of 1840. — Though President Van Buren 
was a statesman of good sense and ability, and had acted 
with great prudence during the panic, the people could not 
forget the years of disaster and suffering during his term. 
For the hard times the Whigs blamed the Democrats. A 
Whig convention met at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, in 
December, 1839, and nominated William Henry Harrison 
(pages 261-264), for President and John Tyler, of Virginia, 

for Vice President. In May, 1840, 
a Democratic convention with- 
out opposition renominated Van 
Buren for President. 

A foolish sneer by a Demo- 
cratic newspaper greatly assisted 
the campaign of General Harrison. 
It said that he would be more at 
home in a log cabin drinking cider 
than living in the White House as 
President. At once the Whigs 
took this up as an insult to the 
millions who were then living in 
log cabins or whose parents had dwelt in them. Harrison's 
friends selected the log cabin as their party emblem. 
Whig headquarters were always in a log cabin; every 
town and hamlet in the land had its log cabin; in all Whig 
parades there were log cabins. The Whigs adopted no 
platform but turned the campaign into a season of fun 
and frolic. In their countless torchlight processions they 
shouted for "Tippecanoe and Tyler too." 

In the election of 1840 Harrison and Tyler received 234 
electoral votes, while Van Buren received but 60. Birney, 
the Abolition candidate, received no electoral votes, though 
in the Northern States 7000 citizens had cast their ballots 
for him. 




WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON 



QUESTIONS AND REFERENCES 295 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — Explain Jackson's dislike of Henry Clay. 
Why was the administration of Adams not successful? Describe 
Jackson's long campaign for the presidency; also his inauguration. 
What was the " spoils system "? Discuss nullification and name its 
principal advocate. 

What was Jackson's feeling toward the second United States Bank? 
Who were the Whigs and who the " Tories " of this period? What 
was done with the surplus revenue in 1837? What was the specie 
circular/ Who succeeded Jackson in the presidency? What was 
the condition of trade and industry during 1837? In whose adminis- 
tration was the Independent Treasury established? What was the 
Abolition movement? Who were elected President and Vice 
President in 1840? 

References. — The same readings suggested in the preceding 
chapter will be found useful in this; also, Bourne's Disfrihu.tion of the 
Surplus Revenue of 1837; Catterall's Second Bank of the United States. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

DEVELOPMENT, IMMIGRATION, AND REFORM 
(1820-1840) 

Before studying the events of the Harrison-Tyler ad- 
ministration, it will be well to take a view of the progress 
made by the nation during the preceding two decades. 

National Turnpike ; Early Canals. — By the help of 
Congress a National Turnpike had been built from Cum- 
berland, Maryland, on the Potomac River, across Pennsyl- 
vania to Wheeling, Virginia, on the Ohio River. In 1824 
plans were laid for extending this road and by 1840 it was 
completed to the Mississippi River. This great highway, 
often crowded almost like a city street, passed through the 
states of Ohio, Indiana, and IlHnois. 

The Erie Canal was constructed by the state of New York 
to connect the Hudson River with the Great Lakes. Begun 
in 1817 by De Witt Clinton, the enterprising governor of 
the state, in 1825 it was opened to the public for trade and 
travel. In a remarkable prophecy Governor Clinton set 
forth its benefits to the entire nation and its advantages to 
the city of New York. "That city," he said, "will in the 
course of time become the granary of the world, the em- 
porium of commerce, the seat of manufacturing, the focus 
of great moneyed operations . . . and before the revolu- 
tion of a century the whole island of Manhattan, covered 
with habitations and replenished with a dense population, 
will constitute one vast city." Before the century had 
passed, not only was the island of Manhattan covered with 
houses, but the dwellings and factories and stores of the 
city had invaded both Long Island and Staten Island as 

296 



CANALS AND RAILWAYS 



297 



well as the mainland, to form the mighty metropolis which we 
know as Greater New York. The western part of the state 
began to fill up with settlers, thus adding immensely to the 
value of its land. Before the Erie Canal was opened it had 
cost $100 to send a ton of merchandise from New York to 
Buffalo. The canal reduced the freight charge to $20 a ton. 
The packets, or passenger boats, made the journey in six 
days, l^uffalo built up a large and profitable lake trade. 




PASSENGER iiOAT ON THE ERIE CANAL 

By 1833 Pennsylvania had a canal system extending from 
the Susquehanna River to Pittsburgh, and Ohio had canals 
connecting Lake Erie with the Ohio River. By the systems 
of communication thus established the whole Union was 
benefited, especially Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and the Terri- 
tory of Michigan, which in 1837 became a state. 

The First Railways. — The success of New York and the 
example of Pennsylvania forced the merchants of Baltimore 
and other Maryland people to improve their means of 
communication with the West. In 1828 they began the 
construction of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, the first 



298 DEVELOPMENT, IMMIGRATION, AND REFORM 

in the United States for the carriage of passengers and 
freight.^ 1 he first shovelful of earth was turned up, July 4, 
by Charles Carroll of Carrollton, the only surviving signer 
of the Declaration of Independence. 

In 1836 there was completed a railroad, 136 miles long, 
connecting Charleston, South Carolina, with Hamburg, op- 
posite Augusta, Georgia. By 1835 there were twenty-two 
railroads in the coufltry. Five years later the total mile- 




EARLY LOCOMOTIVE AND TRAIN 



age of the railways was almost 3000. Not only was mer- 
chandise carried more cheaply and travelers more quickly 
by the railroads, but they served as links to bind the East 
to the West, thus adding to the strength of the Union. 

Development of Steamboats. — As we have seen, the 
first striking improvement in communication was begun in 
1807 by the successful trips of Fulton's steamboat on the 
Hudson River. In a little while vessels built like the 
Clermont steamed on the Great Lakes and on the rivers of 
the West. In 1811 Pittsburgh and New Orleans, and in 
1818 Buffalo and Detroit were connected by steamboats. 
The use of steamboats was increased with the building of 
turnpikes and canals. It took a keel boat thirty to forty 
days to make the journey from Louisville, Kentucky, to 
New Orleans, and, poled by sturdy river men, about ninety 

^ At several places tramways had already been built for carrying earth, 
stone, and coal. The first of these was built in Boston in 1S07. In 1S30 
the first American steam locomotive, made by Peter Cooper, was put upon 
the tracks of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. 



DOMESTIC TRADE 299 

days to come back. On the other hand, a steamer made 
the downward trip in seven days and returned in sixteen. 

In 1819 the Savannah, an American steamer saiUng from 
the port of that name, crossed to Liverpool, England, in 
twenty-five days. This was the first trans-Atlantic voyage 
by steamer. By 1838, however, vessels moved by steam 
carried mail to England in a little more than two weeks. 
With the founding of the Cunard line by the British in 
1839 there began the regular steam navigation of the 
Atlantic. 

Domestic Trade. — During the era from 1820 to 1840 
the commercial progress of the nation was seen chiefly in 
the growth of domestic trade. In the South the planters 
sold their cotton to the Middle States, to New England, and 
to Europe. For the money thus received they bought the 
surplus farm produce of the West. It was not until rail- 
roads had been built over the Alleghenies that the West 
began to send much of its produce to the East. Some, 
indeed, had been sent by way of the canals of New York 
and Pennsylvania. 

The Factory System. — By 1840 household manufacture 
began to decline and even to disappear in parts of the 
country; many things formerly made in the home were 
beginning to be made in factories, but on a small scale. 
In large buildings the employees under skilled managers 
carried on all the processes of manufacturing. More than 
half the cotton goods made in the United States were 
produced in New England. Two thirds of the operatives 
were either children under twelve years of age or women. 
In Rhode Island the children were paid $1.50 a week and 
the women $2.20. The pupil will notice the social improve- 
ment that has taken place when he contrasts the toiling 
children of that epoch with his own more fortunate com- 
panions, who spend much of their time at school or at play. 



300 DEVELOPMENT, IMMIGRATION, AND REFORM 




Mccormick reaper of 1845 



The Reaper and Other Inventions. — To this period 
belongs the invention of the reaper (1831), by Cyrus Hall 
McCormick. Even though its merit could never have been 
doubted, many years passed before he could put it on the 
market. This machine, somewhat improved, is still in use 
wherever there is farming on a large scale. It was the 

reaper which 
made possible 
the harvesting 
of the vast grain 
fields of the 
western United 
States. 

In this period, 
the first illumi- 
nating gas was 
made from coal; Fairbanks invented the platform scales; 
and Colt invented a revolver which took the place of 
the single shot pistol. Friction matches gradually came 
into use. In 1836 anthracite coal was successfully used 
in generating steam, and during the same year John 
Ericsson invented the screw propeller, which required less 
fuel than the paddle wheel; moreover, it was always in the 
water, while in a rough sea the paddles were often revolv- 
ing in the air. In 1838 the steam hammer was invented. 
Indeed so numerous were those engaged in the work of 
invention that in 1836 the Patent Office was made a dis- 
tinct bureau of the government to examine and pass upon 
their applications. 

Improvement in Education. — The American people were 
thinking about many things besides labor-saving machinery. 
Leaders of public opinion were convinced that under any 
form of government education is desirable but that in a 
democracy it is indispensable. It was during 1828 that 



LITERATURE 301 

there appeared the first edition of Noah Webster's diction- 
ary, an epoch-making book. In New England, Horace 
Mann aroused an interest in pubhc education. Beginning 
in 1837 he had the satisfaction of seeing in that section a 
better system of schools. The Middle States, too, were 
improving their schools, but in the South progress came 
more slowly. The Western States had already traced the 
outline of their free school system. In that section the 
federal government gave for the support of education a 
tract of one square mile in every thirty-six. When it was 
sold, the sum received was invested and the interest applied 
to the support of public schools. 

Literature. — With the marked improvement in the 
schools and the rise of a rich class came a more general 
demand for good reading This was 
supplied by a number of writers 
whose works really began the Ameri- 
can branch of English literature. It 
was just about the time when 
Jefferson was leaving behind him 
the cares of office (1809) that Irving 
published his entertaining History 
of Diedrich Knickerbocker. A few 

^ 4. /ioio\T3 i. u 1 NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE 

years later (1813) Bryant, when only 
nineteen years old, gave to the world Thanatopsis, a fine 
poem on death. In the intervals between the editorial 
duties of a lifetime he wrote To a Waterfowl and other verses 
scarcely inferior. The Indian tales of Cooper began to 
appear in 1821. Perhaps The Last of the Mohicans is the 
best known. Hawthorne began to delight his readers in 
1828. Within the same decade (1829) Poe, a master of 
prose and verse, began to publish. In their kind it may be 
doubted whether any author has equalled Poe's Tales of the 
Grotesque and Arabesque. In the next decade, 1830-1840, 




302 DEVELOPMENT, IMMIGRATION, AND REFORM 




GEORGE BANCROFT 



the number of great American authors was doubled. The 
new writers included Whittier, dedicated to the antislavery 
movement; Longfellow, the most popular of American 
poets; the historian Prescott; George Bancroft, another 
master in the same field ; the essayist, poet, 
and philosopher Emerson; and Holmes, a 
witty and graceful prose stylist and a lyric 
poet of rare power. In 1841, lying just 
lieyond the epoch under discussion, was 
published the first work of James Russell 
Lowell, essayist and poet. The authors 
above named gave answer to the sneer of 
the English essayist Sydney Smith, asking, 
in 1820, ''Who, in the four quarters of 
the globe, reads an American book? " 
Growth of Cities and Towns. — When the Constitution 
was framed (1787), the American people were chiefly in- 
terested in agriculture. From the earliest times there were 
large plantations in the South, At first the most important 
crops were tobacco and indigo, but after Whitney's inven- 
tion (page 278) cotton became more and more important' 
and in a few years was the chief article of export from the 
United States. Unlike the Northern farmer the planter 
owned his laborers, the negro slaves, who were generally 
unskilled. In the South, almost entirely devoted to plant- 
ing, there were few great cities or even large towns. 

In the cities and towns of New England and the Middle 
States population increased by the removal from country 
villages of large families whose women and children ob- 
tained employment in mills and factories. The seaports 
grew not only by the natural increase of population but by 
immigration. Many of the newcomers, too poor to pur- 
chase farms, and in some cases even to pay their expenses 
into the interior, accepted at the place of landing any sort 



LABOR ORGANIZATIONS 303 

of employment that offered. Wlien immigrants began to 
arrive by tens of tiiousauds, multitudes were taken by 
contractors engaged in building canals and railways. After 
such public improvements were completed, the foreign 
laborer often settled down in some quiet village and in due 
time became a citizen of the United States. 

The almost magical growth of cities and towns worked 
changes in the old life of the people and even in their local 
government. In the streets the dim oil lamps, which 
burned only on moonless nights, were replaced by gas 
lights. The constable, an official whose honored name 
(count of the stable, or master of the horse) had come down 
the centuries, soon yielded to the policeman. So great had 
grown a few cities that it was possible to make long jour- 
neys without passing their limits. This led to the estab- 
lishment of a system of cheap transportation. In 1830 New 
York led the way with a line of omnibuses. The first 
success encouraged other attempts. Three years later 
Philadelphia imitated the example of New York. 

Labor Organizations. — - The rise of the factory system 
and the activity in building turnpikes, canals, and railroads 
made a great demand for labor. From Europe came multi- 
tudes of workingmen. The sldlled were given employment 
in mills and machine shops, the unskilled in the building of 
canals and railroads. By 1825 at least two of the trades 
had unions. In the city of New York, in 1833, twenty-two 
labor societies took part in a parade. These associations 
assisted the sick, the unemployed, and those on strike. 
They also endeavored to secure better wages for the mem- 
bers of their unions and to limit the hours of a working day. 

Dorr's Rebellion. — "With the success of Jefferson's party 
the right to vote was broadened in state after state, and in 
time was given to nearly all male citizens who had attained 
to their twentj^-first j^ear. Rhode Island was the last state 



304 DEVELOPMENT, IMMIGRATION, AND REFORM 

to cling to the old restrictions. Under its charter only 
those could vote who owned real estate worth $134 or paid 
a yearly rental of $7. This property qualification excluded 
from the suffrage a majority of male citizens of voting age. 
In 1841 there was organized a people's party which tried by 
peaceful revolution to set up a liberal constitution for the 
state. Under the new constitution Thomas W. Dorr was 
elected governor, and he attempted to seize control of the 
state. The governor under the old charter, however, 
called out the militia to support his government. Dorr 
was deserted by his party, was arrested, tried, and con- 
victed of treason, for which he was sentenced to life im- 
prisonment. But he was pardoned in 1842, and o, liberal 
constitution was adopted by the voters.^ 

An Epoch of Reform (1820-1840). — In this period 
imprisonment for debt was abolished and in later times the 
punishments for crime were made less severe. Hospitals 
were established and the discipline of prisons was improved. 
There were also reforms in diet and in dress. Graham 
impressed many with the benefits of brown bread and water. 
Robert Owen taught a kind of communism, and other 
leaders also founded settlements based on similar prin- 
ciples, but they were not permanently successful. 

Spiritual Unrest. — The early years of the nineteenth 
century were marked by wars of creeds, the new attacking 

1 In part of New York disorders of another kind were caused by a struggle 
of the people against conditions that had persisted from colonial times. 
The founder of the Van Rensselaer family in New York was so active in the 
work of colonization that he received from the Dutch West India Company, 
as patroon, a tract as great in extent as the state of Rhode Island. The 
farmers on his vast estate had been accustomed to pay their rent in produce. 
On them fell also the burden of state and local taxes, while the patroon was 
exempt. On the death, in 1839, of one of the patroons his heir attempted 
to collect some rents which were overdue, but the farmers assembled and 
drove off the sheriff. This was the beginning of what is known as the Anti- 
Rent War, which dragged on till 1846. The trouble was finally set at rest 
by allowing the farmers to buy the land they tilled. 



SPIRITUAL UNREST 305 

the old. The revivals of that time interested even the 
lowest rank in society. By 1801 as many as 20,000 persons 
sometimes attended the camp meetings, often held in open 
groves. Entire villages were oftentimes forsaken and the 
highways thronged with people on their way to the groves. 
By 1831 William Miller was preaching the Second Advent 
of Christ. Another evidence of the spiritual unrest of this 
time was the growth of the Mormons, a sect founded by 
Joseph Smith.^ 

Mormonism. — The first Mormon church was organized 
in 1830, with a membership of six. They soon removed 
to Kirtland, Ohio, where they were joined by a Baptist 
minister and a part of his congregation. There they built 
a temple, established a communistic society, and engaged in 
banking. But during the panic of 1837 their bank failed, 
and the Mormon leaders were soon in flight from the offi- 
cers of the law. The Mormons next settled in Missouri, 
but were disliked by their neighbors and forced to leave. 
At Nauvoo, in western Illinois, they became numerous and 
powerful. Smith now began secretly to teach polygamy, 
whereupon the more moral of his followers left his church 
and in a newspaper strongly condemned the prophet's 
immorality. Smith caused their printing office to be de- 

' Joseph Smith was born in Vermont in 1805. His mother was a fortune- 
teller and his father, also named Joseph Smith, was a well-finder. In western 
New York, to which the family removed in 1816, young Smith grew to 
manhood. By practice in a debating society he gained a sort of rude elo- 
quence. He could write his name. While still young he began a career of 
deception, spending a part of his time in blessing crops and digging, as his 
father had done, for buried treasure. 

He claimed that in a vision an angel in white told him where certain gold 
plates were buried; that he dug them up and with some difficulty 
brought them home. With the plates, he said, were two stones, "Urim" 
and "Thummim," set in silver bows in the manner of lenses in a spectacle 
frame. By looking through them he claimed that he was able to translate 
the characters on the plates. The money for printing the Book of Mormon, 
as the "translation" was called, was furnished by a neighboring farmer. 



306 DEVELOPMENT, IMMIGRATION, AND REFORM 



stroyed. This act of violence brought to the town a body 
of militia which carried off the prophet and lodged him in 

jail, where he was 
shot by a mob 
(1844). Most of 
the Mormonsthen 
went far west and 
built up what is 
now the state of 
Utah.i 

Anti-Catholic 
Feeling. — In co- 
lonial New Eng- 
land there was a 
feeling of extreme 
bitterness toward Catholics. This hostility was slightly 
changed by the friendship of France and of Spanish 
America during the War for Independence. As members 
of the Catholic faith became more numerous and their 
churches began to multiply, malicious people in Massa- 
chusetts fanned the embers of religious hatred until popu- 
lar passion was at white heat. 

It was in such a state of public feeling that an overworked 
and nervous nun left the Ursuline Convent at Charlestown, 




a mormon guidepost (the skull of a 
buffalo) 



' They numbered perhaps 10,000 and were led by the new Mormon 
prophet, Brigham Young. Anxious to escape from the United States, they 
journeyed by way of the Platte Valley to Great Salt Lake, then in Mexico. 
But when they arrived there (1848), all that region had been acquired by the 
United States as a resuH of the Mexican War. After a year of hardship, 
Deseret, as they named their new community, began to prosper. In 1857 
Brigham Young declared that the Lord, in a revelation to the prophet Joseph 
Smith, liad enjoined the practice of polygamy or plural marriage. It was 
in the same year that a band of Mormons, disguised as Indians, massacred 
at the Mountain Meadows more than a hundred settlers on their way to 
California. The practice of polygamy in the Mormon church continued for 
more than thirty years — until Congress applied heavy penalties for it. 



ANTI-CATHOLIC FEELING 307 

Massachusetts. By Bishop Fenwick she was persuaded to 
return and was placed under the care of a physician. By 
the industry of the pulpit and the press, the public was 
convinced that at the convent a nun was forcibly detained 
and was the victim of harsh treatment. Accordingly on 
the night of August 9, 1834, there surrounded the academy 
a mob shouting, ''Down with the convent! Down with 
the nuns! " When the nun assured them that she was free 
to leave the convent if she desired, the more reasonable 
declared themselves satisfied, but they were not heeded. 

Fanaticism was fully aroused. Meetings were held to 
organize the work of destruction. At midnight the gentle 
nuns and their fifty-five young ladies were rudely awakened 
from sleep, and half-dressed were driven forth into the night. 
The mob, at that stage beyond control, burst the door, 
rushed into the building, and drove the trembling inmates 
to its upper rooms. The rioters smashed the furniture, 
profaned the chapel, stole the jewelry, and applied the torch. 
The climl)ing flames gave notice to the peaceful dwellers in 
the shadow of Bunker Hill that the devil was abroad. 

The next day there assembled at Faneuil Hall many of the 
indignant citizens of Boston who denounced the destruction 
of the convent as an act at once base and cowardly. In 
Cambridge there was held a similar meeting. At the 
moment there was vague talk of restitution. Compensa- 
tion was considered, but none has ever been made.^ 

1 The outbreak against Catholics was not confined to Boston, but grew 
to be nation wide. Bigotry, which needs no stimulus, was greatly inflamed 
by the appearance two years later (183G) of a book prepared by conspirators 
for Maria Monk. This unfortunate girl posed as a former inmate of a con- 
vent in Montreal. In New York she was taken up by zealous church workers, 
who attempted to maintain the truth of her story even after its falsity had 
been proved. A committee of Protestant clergymen, however, pronounced 
her statements uttcrlj' false. Maria Monk had never been a nun. The great 
leaders of America have never encouraged intolerance. 



308 DEVELOPMENT, IMMIGRATION, AND REFORM 

Questions and References 

Review Questions, — State the importance of the Erie Canal. 
Give an account of the first railways; also of early steamboat naviga- 
tion. What is said of the factory system? Name the important 
inventions of the period 1820-1840. 

Who aroused interest in the public schools ? Give the name of a 
book, a poem, or a story by Irving, by Whittier, by Bryant, by 
Cooper, by Poe. What kind of books were written by Prescott and 
Bancroft ? Name other authors of this period. Describe the growth 
of towns and cities. What is said of labor organizations? What 
was Dorr's Rebellion? How were the disputes about rents finally 
settled in New York? 

Give the history of Mormonism. When and where was the 
prophet Smith murdered? Who followed him in the leadership? 

How did the Anti-Catholic feeling in Charlestown, Massachusetts, 
express itself? 

References. — Carroll D. Wright, Industrial Evolution of the United 
States; Kennedy, Early Days of Mormonism; H. H. Bancroft, His- 
tory of Utah; O'Gorman, The Catholic Church in the United States. 



CHAPTER XXV 
EXPANSION AND DISSENSION (184Q-1852) 

Harrison and Tyler. — In 1840 the Whigs elected not 
only the President (page 294), but also a majority in 
Congress. As soon as Harrison was inaugurated, he called 
a special session of Congress to undo the work of the Demo- 
crats, but he lived only a month after taking office, and 
when Congress assembled John Tyler was President. 

On the whole Tyler was more in sympathy with the 
Democrats than with the Whigs who elected him. Clay 
and his Whig followers had long been in favor of a United 
States Bank. Now that they were in power they attempted 
to carry out their party principles. But the bill for charter- 
ing a new national bank was vetoed by President Tyler. 
In a little while all the members of his Cabinet, except 
Daniel Webster, resigned, and in an address to the people 
the Whig Congressmen read the President out of their 
party. 

The Webster-Ashburton Treaty. — Webster remained in 
office as Secretary of State until he had arranged with Great 
Britain a treaty which fixed the disputed northeastern 
boundary of Maine and settled one or two other questions. 
In the negotiations Great Britain was represented by Lord 
Ashburton. Under the treaty neither party got all that it 
claimed; the disputed tract was divided about equally.* 

' It was likewise provided by this treaty that to stop the slave trade each 
government would keep, cruising on the African coast, a squadron carrying 
at least eighty guns. There was also a provision that any person charged 
with a grave crime in either country and escaping into the other should, if 
possible, be given up to the officials of the country in which the crime was 
•ommitted. 

309 



310 EXPANSION AND DISSENSION 

Longing for Texas. — Before the treaty of 1819, for the 
acquisition of Florida, the Texan question had been a subject 
of dispute between the United States and Mexico. The 
United States claimed that Louisiana extended westward to 
the Rio Grande. But so anxious was President Monroe to 
obtain Florida that the American claim to the land beyond 
the Sabine River was given up (page 277). This treaty 
was never satisfactory to the South. Only a few months 
after the LTnited States had abandoned Texas, James Long, 
of Tennessee, issued from Nacogdoches (nak-o-do'chez), 
Texas, a proclamation of Texan independence. But after 
the revolt against Spain, Texas was included in the inde- 
pendent country of Mexico. Moses Austin and his son 
Stephen, by permission of Mexico, brought into Texas 
many settlers from Tennessee, Mississippi, and Louisiana. 
By 1830 there were 20,000 people in Texas, and newspapers 
and public acts were printed in the English language. At 
San Felipe (fil-le'pa) a council prepared a constitution for 
the state of Texas, and sent to Mexico a petition for relief; 
but there was civil war in that republic and the petition 
was ignored. Then Mexican soldiers began to crowd into 
the territory. In October, 1835, the Texans successfully 
attacked the Mexican garrisons and in two months drove 
the troops from the country. In the meantime the Texans 
had organized a government and appointed Sam Houston 
as commander in chief of their army. 

War between Texas and Mexico. — The Texans declared 
that they took up arms in defense of their liberties, which 
were threatened by INIexican military despots; also to 
defend the Mexican constitution of 1824, modeled on the 
Constitution of the United States. They refused to ac- 
knowledge the present officials as the government of the 
Mexican Republic. From New Orleans and other places 
in the South the Texans were constantly receiving money, 



TEXANS DECLARE INDEPENDENCE 



311 



men, arms, and provisions. On the pretense that there was 
an Indian uprising, American troops passed into Texas to 
protect the settlers. In this state of affairs the Mexican 
minister left Washington, thus breaking off diplomatic 
relations. 

Texans Declare Independence. — On March 2, 1836, at 
Washington, Texas, a convention adopted a declaration of 
independence. The delegates stated that the constitution 




THE FIGHT AT THE ALAMO 



tf(,mi-TON- 



of 1824 had been overthrown, freedom of worship denied, 
no system of education established, or trial by jury 
instituted. 

In February, 1836, the Mexican leader, Santa Anna, 
marched to the Alamo (ah'lah-mo), a mission at San An- 
tonio garrisoned by one hundred fifty men under Colonel 
Travis. The commander refusing to surrender or to re- 
tire, an assault was ordered, and on March 6 the defenders 



312 EXPANSION AND DISSENSION 

were put to the sword. Afterward small parties were de- 
stroyed by the Mexican army and many prisoners were 
shot. On April 21, 1836, General Sam Houston made a 
stand at San Jacinto, in southeastern Texas, where he was 
attacked by the Mexicans. Santa Anna was captured and 
his army, which lost heavily, was routed. The Texans 
charged with the cry, "Remember the Alamo!" During 
the six years that followed Mexico was torn by strife. 
There were revolts in Yucatan, in the northern states, and 
even in the city of Mexico. The treasury was empty 
and the army disorganized. Each administration squeezed 
millions from the Church, often demanding from it sums 
far in excess of its revenues. Mexico never reestablished 
her authority over Texas, which set up a government of its 
own and proposed annexation to the United States.^ 

Election of 1844; Annexation of Texas. — In 1844 Presi- 
dent Tyler made a treaty of annexation and submitted 
it to the Senate, but that body refused to ratify it. In the 
election of that year the Democratic party declared in favor 
of the "re-annexation" of Texas; also the "re-occupa- 
tion " of Oregon up to 54° 40'. The Whigs nominated 
their great leader Clay, but he was defeated by James K. 
Polk, the Democratic candidate. The success of the 
Democrats was regarded by Tyler as a popular command 
to annex Texas. Having failed to secure that state by 
treaty, he signed a joint resolution of Congress providing 
for its annexation.^ 

The Oregon Claimants. — To the rights of Spain on the 
northwest coast the United States succeeded by the Florida 

' So cautious was President Jackson that though the acquisition of Texas 
was one of the master passions of his life, historians have told us that he was 
opposed to it. In writing to his intimate friends Jackson was fond of say- 
ing, "We must regain Texas, peaceably if we can, forcibly if we must." 

* The ratification of a treaty requires a two-thirds vote of the Senate; 
but a resolution may be passed by a majority. 



THE OREGON QUESTION 313 

treaty (1819; page 277). Some statesmen held that when 
Louisiana was purchased (1803), our government acquired 
any interest which France had had in the Oregon country. 
In 1792 Captain Robert Gray, in his ship Columbia, had 
sailed up the great river of Oregon. But just as he returned 
and was beating out to sea he met the British navigator 
Vancouver, who was about to explore the same region. To 
him Gray gave a map and mentioned his discovery. Van- 
couver, after sending a boat up the Columbia, which had 
been so named by Gray, claimed the region for King 
George III. 

The work of Vitus Bering gave to Russia (1741) a claim 
to the northwest coast of North America. By reason of 
later exploration and settlement that nation claimed every- 
thing from Bering Strait to a point below the Columbia, 
and in 1816 sent its traders down as far as California. But 
after the announcement of President Monroe in 1823 
(page 281), Russia left California and withdrew far to the 
north. This left the United States and England to contend 
for the ownership of Oregon.^ 

Joint Occupation. — In 1818 it was agreed that the 
northern boundary of the United States should be a line 
extending from the Lake of the Woods to the Stony Moun- 

' As the Spaniards had sailed up the coast long before Sir Francis Drake, 
England had no claim because of his piratical cruise of 1579. Two hundred 
years later another renowned English navigator, Captain Cook, arrived at 
Nootka Sound, on Vancouver Island, a few years after the Spaniard Perez. 
Upon the explorations of Thompson, Fraser, and Mackenzie, who had gone 
overland into the unknown West, Great Britain in part based her claim to 
that territory. Vancouver's work we have seen. In 1790, by the agreement 
known as the Nootka Sound Convention, Spain was forced to acknowledge 
English rights in the Northwest. In 1809 the Missouri Fur Company planted 
an American settlement on the Snake River, but during 1811 the settlers were 
driven off by hostile Indians. Under the leadership of John Jacob Astor, a 
merchant of New York, the Pacific Fur Company was formed. On the south 
side of the Columbia, ten miles from its mouth, it established in 1811 a fur 
station named Astoria. 



314 



EXPANSION AND DISSENSION 



tains at the 49th parallel. Beyond the Hockies the line 
was unsettled, but at the mouth of the Columbia, England 
claimed equal rights with the United States. However, to 
this equality of rights Americans refused to agree. Leaving 
the boundary as stated, the 49th parallel at the Rocky 
Mountains, it was agreed that the whole Oregon country 
was to be "free and open for the term of ten years " to the 
subjects of both powers (map, page 280). In 1826, it was 
agreed that the joint occupation was to continue indefinitely, 
but either party could put an end to this arrangement Ijy 
serving on the other a notice of twelve months. The Oregon 
region was coming more and more into the hands of the 
British Hudson Bay ( 'onij^any. President Jackson seemed 



-"•"^WSfe 




ON THE WAY TO OREGON 



indifferent to distant Oregon, ])ut his friend. Senator Thomas 
H. Benton, had not overlooked its importance and never 
rested till the possessions of the United States extended to 
the Pacific. 

American Settlers. — In 1837 American settlers com- 
menced to enter Oregon and by 1842 there set in a great 
stream of immigration. Much information about Oregon 
and the routes to it was obtained by John C. Fremont, the 



THE OREGON QUESTION SETTLED 315 

son-in-law of Senator Benton, who made several perilous 
journeys into and beyond the Rocky Mountains. In 
Congress there were heated debates in which some members, 
like Benton, were prepared to go to even the length of war 
in order to secure Oregon. Calhoun saw clearly that 
American migration Avould in time win the territory for the 
United States without the risk of war with England. Dur- 
ing the summer of 1843 hundreds of wagons and no fewer 
than 3000 American settlers entered the Oregon country. 
A few fur traders and some missionaries were already 
established there. 

The Oregon Question Settled. — The Democratic party, 
in the election of 1844, took for its watchword, "Fifty-four 
forty or fight." As 54° 40' is the southern boundary of 
Alaska, Great Britain would have been excluded from the 
Pacific by the Democratic claim. Congress gave President 
Polk authority to serve upon England the notice required 
to end the joint occupation. The dispute was finally 
settled June 15, 1840, by a treaty fixing the northern bound- 
ary of the United States at the 49th parallel and the Strait 
of Juan de Fuca (foo'cah). Owing to the great influence 
of the Hudson Bay Company, Vancouver Island was lost 
to the United States (map, page 330). 

The Wild Summer of 1844. — It was in 1841 tliat Bishop 
Kenrick, of Philadelphia, asked the school board to allow 
Catholic children to use the Catholic version of the Bible. 
Man}^ were induced to believe that Catholics wished to pre- 
vent Protestant pupils from reading their own Bible. In 
American Protestant opinion, during this period of anti- 
Catholic feeling (page 306), any Catholic was sufficiently 
bad, but the Irish were odious. In a Native American 
meeting violent language was used against the members 
of that persecuted race. At night their houses were stoned 
and l)urned. A few attempted to defend their homes and 



316 EXPANSION AND DISSENSION 

thus some members of the mob were slain. Then was 
raised the cry, "To the nunnery!" At once a rush was 
made for a little community of Sisters of Charity, but a 
volley from its defenders drove the fanatics away for the 
moment. 

On the next day, after the burning of twenty-nine dwell- 
ings of Irish Catholics, a church and parochial residence 
were set on fire. The firemen declined to serve, and the 
militia were mute. At another place the mayor, who came 
out to plead for order, was brutally silenced by a missile 
which knocked him senseless. The police were dispersed. 
Amid the shouts of a frenzied mob St. Augustine's Church 
also was devoted to the flames. When its blazing cross 
fell, there went up a mighty roar. The house of the Sisters 
did not escape a second time. The heroines of the cholera 
scourge were bereft of home. 

In this emergency Bishop Kenrick was compelled to 
suspend the exercises of public worship in the remaining 
Catholic churches. A grand jury called to inquire into the 
riots falsely ascribed them to ''the efforts of a portion of 
the community to exclude the Bible from public schools." 
Those guilty of theft, arson, and murder were mentioned 
as "unoffending citizens." Though some ministers fanned 
the flames of hate, the more respectable Protestants of 
Philadelphia were ashamed of the atrocities. 

Causes of War with Mexico. — Since their annexation to 
the United States, both Texas and California have become 
the homes of millions of contented people. In a word, all 
the Southwest is now the abode of prosperity. On the 
other hand, lean famine has often stalked throughout the 
lands beyond the Rio Grande. No friend of humanity, 
then, can regret that in 1848 California was annexed to the 
United States. Though the method of doing it may be 
criticized, yet the story must be told. 



iM 



WAR WITH MEXICO 317 

John Quincy Adams said it was not only Texas that the 
United States wanted, but the whole course of the Rio 
Grande and five degrees of latitude across the continent to 
the Pacific. The historian Hubert Howe Bancroft says 
that the war with Mexico was a premeditated scheme to 
rob that struggling republic of a sHce of her territory to 
satisfy the slave party in the United States. Finally, it 
should be added that Americans wished it to appear that 
Mexico was the aggressor.^ 

First Aggressions. — The boundary between Mexico and 
Texas was in dispute; Texas claimed to the Rio Grande, 
Mexico to the Nueces River. On January 13, 1846, Gen- 
eral Taylor was ordered to advance and post himself near 
the east bank of the Rio Grande; he was to respect per- 
sonal rights and refrain from interfering in matters of 
religion. He arrived opposite Matamoras on March 28 
and began to strengthen his position. A Mexican army of 
5000 watched his movements. On April 24 General Arista 
informed Taylor that hostilities were regarded as having 
commenced. On the next day a force of sixty-three Ameri- 
can dragoons was killed or captured. When these tidings 
were received in Washington, President Polk sent to Con- 
gress a special message in which he said: "Mexico has 
passed the boundary of the United States; has invaded our 
territory and shed American blood upon American soil." 

1 Mexico was indebted to the United States to the extent of about three 
million dollars, but the claims presented amounted to nearly twelve millions. 
On August 17, 1840, there met in the city of Washington a commission made 
up of Americans and Mexicans to inquire into the justice of the claims sub- 
mitted. The umpire was the Baron de Roenne, Prussian minister to the 
United States. Of all the claims presented, less than one fifth were allowed ; 
three fourths were thrown out as fraudulent; others of the same spurious 
character, amounting to $3,500,000, did not come before the commission in 
time for examination. The amounts awarded by the commission Mexico 
was paying in installments until the annexation of Texas, when the pay- 
ments immediately ceased. 



318 



EXPANSION AND DISSENSION 



Congress authorized the enhstment of 50,000 volunteers for 
twelve months and placed at the President's disposal 
$10,000,000. When war began, the Whigs voted men and 
money to support their country. But they had tried to 




MEXICAN WAR 



prevent it, and in the "Spot Resolutions " Abraham Lin- 
coln ridiculed the President's proclamation. On May 13, 
1846, war was declared. 

Campaign on the Rio Grande. — On the 8th of May, 
General Taylor met and defeated the Mexican forces at 



WAR WITH MEXICO 319 

Palo Alto (pah'lo ahl'to). On the following day, in the dry 
river bed of the Palm, Resaca de la Palma (ra-sah'cah da 
lah pahl'mah), Taylor won another victory. In the two 
battles he lost forty-three in killed and one hundred twenty- 
five wounded. Afterward the Mexican commander crossed 
the Rio Grande with his hungry and thirsty soldiers. 

Taylor Invades Mexico. — On May 18, 1846, General 
Taylor crossed the Rio Grande and occupied Matamoras. 
From the Rio Grande to the city of Mexico is a distance of 
1000 miles, a line too long to be defended. With Saltillo 
as his objective point the American commander began the 
conquest of the north Mexican states. In a little while the 
Mexican army began to enter and fortify Monterey. 

Siege of Monterey. — In his assault on the town of 
Monterey, Taylor's force was three times repulsed. Break- 
ing through from house to house the Americans advanced 
toward the great plaza. But at that point the enemy sent 
in a flag of truce. On September 28, 1846, the last Mexican 
brigade marched out of Monterey. By the officials in 
Washington, Taylor was criticized for his generous terms to 
a gallant foe. Probably he could have forced the surrender 
of the citadel, but it would have been costly, for he had 
already lost 500 men. The resistance of the Mexicans 
convinced Taylor that it would not be prudent to undertake 
an advance to their distant capital. Therefore he recom- 
mended that the attempt on the city of Mexico be made 
from Vera Cruz. 

Buena Vista. — In November, General Taylor marched 
to Saltillo. About that time General Scott arrived in 
Matamoras and took away General Worth and many of 
Taylor's best men for the campaign from Vera Cruz. In 
their weakened condition this looked like a good oppor- 
tunity to destroy the Americans. Though Taylor's scout- 
ing parties were taken, it was nevertheless learned that the 



320 EXPANSION AND DISSENSION 

Mexicans were advancing in overwhelming numbers. To 
meet them with his diminished army the American com- 
mander took up his position at Buena Vista (bwa'nah 
ves'tah). A spirited attack, begun on February 22, 1847, 
greatly favored the Mexicans, but the arrival of General 
Taylor saved his army. The American militia had fled, 
though later they re-formed and assisted in repulsing a 
fierce cavalry charge. By the night of the 23d the armies 
occupied the same position as at the beginning of the battle. 
Taylor made plans for a third day's battle, but the Mexicans 
retired. For many a mile dead, dying, and starving men 
marked Santa Anna's line of retreat. This was the end of 
the campaign on the Rio Grande. 

Campaign from Vera Cruz. — Early in March, 1847, 
General Winfield Scott assembled near Vera Cruz about 
12,000 men. Revolts in the interior left that city almost 
defenseless. On the 29th, the Mexican garrison marched 
out with the honors of war, upon which the Americans took 
possession. 

Santa Anna by forced marches came down from the north, 
raised an army, and posted himself at the pass of Cerro 
Gordo. But the Americans pushed through, and entered 
Puebla May 15. 

After a long wait at Puebla, until reenforcements had 
reached him. General Scott resumed his advance on the 
City of Mexico. On August 20 at Churubusco occurred 
some bloody fighting. Finally the Mexicans fled. In the 
pursuit Captain Philip Kearney pushed on to the gates of 
Mexico city, where he lost an arm. In five battles around 
the capital, Scott estimated the enemy's loss at 4000 killed 
and wounded and 3000 prisoners. 

On September 7 and 8 hostilities were resumed by bloody 
fighting at Molino del Rey (mo-le'no del ra'ee), the ad- 
vantage being with the Americans. This was the most 



WAR WITH MEXICO 



321 



desperate battle of the war. At daybreak on the 13th was 
begun the storming of Chapultepec'. In defending this 
castle Mexican cadets of fourteen years shared the horrors 
of war with the coolness of men. With its capture the 
American army entered the city of Mexico. Firing from 
housetops led to the adoption of severe measures by General 
Scott. On the 17th he declared martial law. In February, 
1848, General Scott was reheved of his command. Neither 
Scott nor Taylor enjoyed the confidence of the Democratic 
President, for both were Whigs. 

New Mexico. — Between St. Louis in Missouri and Santa 
Fe in New Mexico there had sprung up a trade valued at 
one or two millions of dollars. Though Santa Fe had been 
settled more than two hundred 
years before Anglo-Americans 
entered Texas, yet the Texans 
claimed it as part of their 
state. When the war began 
Colonel Stephen W. Kearny 
was sent with a regiment of 
dragoons to protect the trad- 
ers, to take Santa Fe, and 
operate against northern Mex- 
ico. Later he was directed to 
assist the American fleet on 
the coast of California. New 
Mexico was taken without re- 
sistance, and Colonel Doni- 
phan was directed to remain 
with a force in the conquered 
province. 

Conquest of California. — John C. Fremont has already 
been mentioned as an explorer. Before the outbreak of the 
war with Mexico, which he knew would occur, he had taken 




FBEMONT THE EXPLORER 



322 EXPANSION AND DISSENSION 

an armed force of sixty marksmen to assist in his explora- 
tions. When the Mexican governor ordered him to leave 
California, Fremont refused, and occupied a strong place, 
which he fortified. Later he met one Ide, who had headed 
a revolt against Mexico and had assisted in founding the 
"Bear Flag Republic." This party Fremont agreed to 
support. By July 6 the expected tidings had reached him 
of war between the United States and Mexico; also infor- 
mation that Commodore Sloat, of the Navy, had taken the 
port of Monterey in California. The American flag had 
been hoisted and California proclaimed a part of the terri- 
tory of the United States. When Admiral Stockton arrived 
on the coast, he took Fremont into the service of the 
United States, giving him the rank of Major. The gov- 
ernment of the "Bear Flag Republic" was also accepted 
into the American service. 

In an outbreak much of the work of Fremont was undone. 
When his situation became dangerous. Colonel Kearny's 
forces restored American supremacy and in January, 1847, 
that officer marched his forces into San Diego (de-a'go). 
The conquest of California was complete. 

Terms of Peace. — Nicholas P. Trist, an employee of the 
State Department, had gone to Mexico and, though stripped 
of his authority, made a treaty which with some changes 
was satisfactory to the government of the United States. 
President Polk proclaimed peace June 19, 1848. 

By this treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the 
war, the United States agreed to give up the conquered 
forts and withdraw her army from Mexico. She was also 
to assume the debts of Mexico to American citizens, the 
amount not to exceed $3,500,000. Further she was to pay 
Mexico S15,000,000, and in return was to receive the region 
now included in California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of 
Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming. The Rio 



THE WILMOT PROVISO 323 

Grande was accepted as the boundary between Texas and 
Mexico (map, page 330).^ 

The Wilmot Proviso. — In the course of the war, in 
August, 1846, David Wilmot, a Representative from 
Pennsylvania, introduced into Congress an amendment to 
an appropriation bill which provided that in any territory 
which might be acquired from Mexico "neither slavery nor 
involuntary servitude shall ever exist." This Wihnot 
Proviso, as it is called, became the center of interest in 
Congress as well as outside. Though it passed the House, 
it did not become a law, for it failed to pass the Senate. 
It did, however, greatly inflame public feeling on the dis- 
turbing question of slavery. Wilmot represented the 
general sentiment at the North. 

The Election of 1848. — Before President Polk had pro- 
claimed peace, political parties had already named their 
candidates. The Democratic convention nominated Lewis 
Cass for President. Its platform asserted that the war 
was provoked by "years of insult and injury " on the part 
of Mexico, but it made no mention of slavery. The Whig 
convention nominated Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana, for 
President and Millard Fillmore, of New York, for Vice 
President. A convention of the Free-Soil party nominated 
Ex-President Martin Van Buren and Charles Francis 
Adams, a son of John Quincy Adams. Though they did 
not purpose to interfere with slavery within the limits of 
any state, they intended by act of Congress to oppose 

1 Five years later President Pierce informed Congress that a dispute had 
arisen concerning the boundary between Mexico and New Mexico. The 
recent treaty required our government to keep in order the Indians of the 
latter territory. These and other questions led to the formation of a new 
treaty, largely shaped by Christopher Gadsden, by which for .$10,000,000 we 
acquired in 1854 an area of 45,535 square miles, including the Gila River route 
desired by the Southern Pacific Railroad so that its entire line could be con- 
structed on American soil. This addition is known as the Gadsden Purchase. 



324 EXPANSION AND DISSENSION 

its extension. To the demand for more slave states they 
answered: "No more slave states and no more slave terri- 
tory." On their banner they inscribed, "Free Soil, Free 
Speech, Free Labor, and Free Men." In New York, 
Martin Van Buren received more than 120,000 votes, 
chiefly those of Democrats, thus giving that state and, as 
it happened, the election to the Whig candidates. March 
4th having fallen on Sunday, Taylor and Fillmore were 
inaugurated March 5, 1849. 

The California Missions. — It was eighty years before 
this, — in March, 1768, — that Father Junipero Serra,^ of 
the Order of Friars Minor, embarked rom Mexico with some 
companions for the little known country of upper California. 
It had been resolved to found missions at San Diego and 
Monterey. The natives of that region appear to have been 
about the most degraded among the races of men. Their 
conversion to Christianity, therefore, was one of the 
mightiest tasks ever undertaken by Spain. Great herds of 
cattle and large quantities of seeds were carried to regions 
more distant from Mexico than Omaha is from New York. 
After the party disembarked, the aborigines beheld a strange 
cavalcade, fearless explorers, armored soldiers, picturesque 
friars, and uncouth Indians journeying over a fertile 
country, very different from the sterile peninsula of lower 
California in which the Jesuits, until their unjust expulsion 
in 1767, had heroically toiled for the welfare of the natives. 

Before long the party of Father Junipero had founded 
five missions. To their new pastors the dusky lambs 
looked harmless, but the priest had yet to learn that the 
superstitions of the Indian oftentimes drove him to frenzy. 
It was some such unfounded fear that led a thousand red 
men to destroy the San Diego mission. At first the sur- 

1 He was christened Miguel Jose, but at his profession chose the name 
Junipero. 



THE CALIFORNIA MISSIONS 



325 



vivors were appalled, ])ut the murder of a missionary was 
no new experience for the followers of Saint Francis. No 
doubt they mourned a space, then carefully rebuilt the 
ruined station, and established new ones, among them, in 
1776, San Francisco (Saint Francis). In these missions 
are to be seen the beginnings of California. 

Prosperity of the Missions. — Before the opening of the 
nineteenth century no fewer than eighteen mission stations 
were in operation in California. Soon afterward three 
others were established. Each station had its gardens, its 
vineyards, and its fer- ^if"- 

tile fields as well as * *^ 

thousands of sheep, 
cattle, and horses. 
Even those travelers 
who were unfriendly 
to the friars acknowl- 
edge the amazing 
commercial success of 
the missions. As a 
matter of fact, they 
had grown rich, and their prosperity had marked them out 
for destruction. In 1821 Mexico had ceased to be a posses- 
sion of Spain. The officials of the new republic, like the 
Spanish authorities in 1813, viewed with covetous eyes the 
fields and flocks of the missions and decided (1833) to make 
of those fine establishments state property. The burden of 
contributions laid upon them soon became oppressive. 
After 1830 the decline of the missions was rapid and by 1840 
those unique communities, the glory of early California, 
were approaching their end. By some of them it had 
already been reached. 

A Poet's Vision. — Material results, and these had 
largely been dispersed before the coming of Americans, 




SANTA BARBARA MISSION 



326 EXPANSION AND DISSENSION 

were the only proofs of achievement that appealed to the 
Forty-niners. At a later day, however, a keener observer 
saw things more enduring, and to him more interesting, than 
the ownership of lands, of herds, or of flocks. Robert Louis 
Stevenson, during a sojourn at Monterey, visited the 
ruined mission near by and thus describes what he saw: 

" Only one day in the year, the day before our Guy Fawkes, the 
padre drives over the hill from Monterey; the little sacristy, which is 
the only covered portion of the church, is filled with seats and deco- 
rated for the service; the Indians troop together, their bright dresses 
contrasting with their dark and melancholy faces; and there, among 
a crowd of somewhat unsympathetic hoUday-maliers, you may hear 
God served with perhaps more touching circumstances than in any 
other temple under heaven. An Indian, stone-blind and about eighty 
years of age, conducts the singing; other Indians compose the choir; 
yet they have the Gregorian music at their finger ends, and pronounce 
the Latin so correctly that I could follow the meaning as they sang. 
The pronunciation was odd and nasal, the singing hurried and stac- 
cato. ' In saecula saeculo-ho-horum,' they went with a vigorous 
aspirate to every additional syllable. I have never seen faces more 
vividly lit up with joy than the faces of these Indian singers. It was 
to them not only the worship of God, nor an act by which they 
recalled and commemorated better days, but was besides an exercise 
of culture, where all they knew of art and letters was united and 
expressed. And it made a man's heart sorry for the good fathers of 
yore who had taught them to dig and to reap, to read and to sing, 
who had given them European mass-books which they still preserve 
and study in their cottages, and who had now passed away from all 
authority and influence in that land. . . ." ' 

Clearly, under the friars, the California Indians had 
advanced far on the road to civilization, but, like the cele- 
brated Jesuit missions in Paraguay, this scene of Francis- 
can endeavor has also become " A Vanished Arcadia."^ i 

* The Old Pacific Capital, pp. 106-107, in Across the Plains, with Other 
Memories and Essays; used by courtesy of Charles Scribner's Sons, ijublishers. 
^ The title of an interesting book by Cunninghame Grahame, who de- 
scribes the success and the decline of the Jesuit missions in Paraguay. 



) 



GOLD DISCOVERED IN CALIFORNIA 327 

The partly civilized natives, some 30,000 in number, were 
soon dispersed. The fate of the mission Indians is one of 
the tragedies of American history. While the friars were 
contending for justice, Americans began to occupy the 
country. 

Gold Discovered in California. — Captain Johann August 
Sutter, long settled in California, owned a great tract and 
had built a fort where Sacramento now stands. He formed 
a partnership with an American, James Wilson Marshall, 
to build a sawmill. For its site it was necessary to find a 
place where timber was convenient to the mill. This he 
succeeded in doing in Coloma Valley on the American River. 
Besides directing the work, Marshall was deepening the race 
by raising the gate and allowing the water to rush through. 
Afterward in relating the story of his discovery Marshall 
wrote: " As I was taking my usual walk along the race after 
shutting off the water, my eye was caught with the glimpse 
of something shining in the bottom of the ditch. There 
was about a foot of water running then. I reached down 
and picked it up; it made my heart thump for I was cer- 
tain that it was gold. The piece was about half the size 
and shape of a pea." Presently Marshall found more. 
With a quantity he hastened to Sutter's fort, where Sutter 
made a test, and was convinced that it was really gold.' 

When the tidings reached the East, multitudes at once 
started for California. Some went in ships that sailed 

* The discovery, which was made in January, 1848, Marshall and Sutter 
decided to keep to themselves. But soldiers and others around the fort in 
sonae way gained knowledge of the secret. The tidings traveled fast and 
far. Before long every one who could get a pan, a shovel, and a hoe was 
"prospecting." Laborers" left their fields and storekeepers their shops: 
soldiers attemjjted to desert from the United States army and sailors aban- 
doned their ships as soon as they got on shore. By hundreds and by thou- 
sands, from all quarters of the globe, men streamed toward Sutter's mill. 
A few of the more fortunate got, in a few days, five, ten, and even fifteen 
thousand dollars. 



328 EXPANSION AND DISSENSION 

around Cape Horn; others took passage for Aspinwall 
(Colon) and on foot crossed the Isthmus to Panama. Many 
made the overland journey across the plains. From In- 
dependence, Missouri, they traveled by way of the Platte 
River, over the South Pass to Salt Lake City, and, as soon 
as the weather would permit, thence to "the diggings." 
By August, 1849, about 80,000 gold hunters, "forty-niners," 
as they came to he called, had survived the dangers of the 
journey and readied the mines.^ 

The State of California. — As Mexican officials were for 
the most part unheeded, and as Congress had provided no 
civil government, there existed in the conquered territory 
only military authority. There were no land laws, while 
mining titles were disputed and oftentimes fought for. In 
that situation, bordering upon anarchy, the people held a 
convention, made and adopted a free-state constitution,^ 
and applied for admission as a state. 

At this time the Union consisted of thirty states, fifteen 
slaveholding and fifteen free. After Missouri, the new 
states were Arkansas (slave, 1836), Michigan (free, 1837), 
Florida (slave, 1845), Texas (slave, 1845), Iowa (free, 1846), 
and Wisconsin (free, 1848). Should Congress admit Cali- 
fornia, it would give the free states a majority in the Senate, 
as it already had a majority in the House of Representa- 
tives, because of their greater population. 

The Issue. — Every Northern legislature, except that of 
Iowa, passed resolutions to the effect that it was the duty 
of Congress to prohibit slavery in the territories. At the 
same time many states requested their Congressmen to 
abolish both slavery and the slave trade in the District of 

* In after years the skeletons of horses and the wrecks of wagons often 
gave notice of some lonely grave. Thousands had died on the plains. 
Whole companies, such as the Donner party, consisting of forty members, 
perished ere they reached the realms of gold. 

' By a free-state constitution is meant one which excluded slavery. 




Forty-niaers panning for gold in California 



THE COMPROMISE MEASURES OF 1850 329 

Columbia. Northern people generally approved Clay's 
plan of gradual emancipation. These were the sentiments 
of public meetings and of newspapers in the North. 

For a convention of Southern members of Congress, Cal- 
houn drew up an address which complained of the difficulty 
of recovering fugitive slaves and of the agitation kept up by 
Abolitionists. It demanded the right of Southern people 
to take their slaves into the territories. These sentiments 
were supported by conventions and by state legislatures. 
At a dinner given to Senator Butler one of the toasts was 
"A Southern Confederacy." 

In December, 1849, the California legislature elected two 
United States Senators, John C. Fremont, an antislavery 
man, and William Gwin, a proslavery man. When Con- 
gress met, there began at once a bitter sectional fight. 
Though there was much bluster, it is certain that until 
Henry Clay suggested a compromise the Union was in 
danger. Twice before, in 1820 and again in 1833 (pages 
281, 289), he had powerfully assisted in its preservation. 
Daniel Webster and John C. Calhoun, who were still in the 
Senate, ably supported his plans. 

The Compromise Measures of 1850. — To please the 
North, Clay proposed (1) that California should be admitted 
into the Union as a free state, and (2) that the slave trade 
(the buying and selling of slaves) should be abolished in the 
District of Columbia. To please the South it was proposed 
(3) that Congress should pass a more stringent law for the 
return of fugitive slaves, and (4) that two territories, New 
Mexico and Utah, be formed from a portion of the Mexican 
purchase, with the understanding that their inhabitants 
should decide whether they should be free soil or open to 
slavery. Clay also proposed (5) that Texas give up her 
claim to the upper Rio Grande Valley — part of New 
Mexico — and that she be paid for so doing. She was 



DEATH OF TAYLOR 331 

afterward promised $10,000,000.^ Together these measures 
were called the Compromise of 1850 and were intended to 
last forever. President Taylor, who was opposed to some 
of them, referred to the first draft of the Compromise as 
the "Omnibus Bill." 

Death of Taylor. — On the Fourth of July, 1850, exer- 
cises were held near the Washington monument at the 
national capital. Though the President did not make the 
principal address, he was long exposed to the rays of a 
scorching sun. Later he showed symptoms of typhoid 
fever, of which he died on the 9th. Fillmore took the 
oath of office and served the remainder of the term. He 
signed all the bills composing the Compromise of 1850. 

Fugitive Slave Law. — The part of the compromise in 
which the South was chiefly interested was the Fugitive 
Slave Law. Of the right of Southern states to get back 
their runaway slaves there is no doubt, for a law on the 
subject had been passed in 1793, while Washington was 
President, and while many of the framers of the Constitu- 
tion still lived. However, the stricter law of 1850 had 
several offensive provisions: 

(1) The sworn statement of the owner was not required 
to prove the identity of the slave. That could be shown by 
the affidavit of an attorney or an agent. Moreover, the 
runaway could not testify in his own behalf. 

(2) If the negro was given to the planter or the agent 
who claimed him, the magistrate or the commissioner hear- 
ing the case received a fee of ten dollars. If, on the other 
hand, the commissioner decided in favor of the negro, he 
received only five dollars. 

(3) All citizens, when called upon, were expected to 
assist in enforcing this law. But for interfering with its 

1 The payment of instalments continued to be made until Texas passed 
an ordinance of secession. 



332 



EXPANSION AND DISSENSION 



execution or for assisting in the escape of a fugitive a 
fine of a thousand dollars and imprisonment could be im- 
posed. 

(4) The law appUed to fugitive slaves no matter how 
long ago they had run away. 

Except in the matter of the new fugitive slave law the 
Compromise was fair to the North. But in that section 
Abolitionists, Free-Soilers, and other antislavery persons 
denounced it. Tired of the agitation, however, the North 

generally supported the policy of 
Congress. The South generally 
was satisfied with the compro- 
mise, though in South Carolina 
the Southern Rights Association, 
in May, 1851, held in Charleston 
a convention that declared in 
favor of secession from the 
Union, with or without the as- 
sistance of other Southern states. 
Enforcing the Fugitive Slave 
Law. — Southern members of 
Congress complained that the 
enforcement of the act for re- 
covering runaway slaves left much to be desired. Two 
Boston negroes, they said, had been spirited away to Eng- 
land. Planters who went to Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, in 
pursuit of negroes were arrested for causing a riot. After 
the lapse of six months and the outlay of $1450, they got 
their slaves. In Detroit it was necessary to call out the 
militia to disperse a mob assembled to prevent the recovery 
of a runaway. In February, 1851, a colored mob broke 
into a room of the United States Court in Boston, set one 
Stiadrach free, and sent him off to Canada. At Christiana, 

* A cut used in newspaper advertisements. 




,v^j^ 



A FUGITIVE SLAVE' 



UNCLE TOM'S CABIN 333 

Pennsj'lvania, Gorsuch, a Maryland planter, was killed and 
his son wounded while attempting to take back with them 
some negroes who had escaped a few years before. In 
Syracuse, New York, Jerry McHeniy was rescued, con- 
cealed, and sent to Canada, some of the leading citizens 
assisting in his escape. 

Uncle Tom's Cabin. — The excitement caused by the 
debates on the Compromise Measures had scarcely passed 
away when, in 1852, appeared Uncle Tom's Cabin, a re- 
markable book written by Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe, 
the daughter of a noted Connecticut clergyman. The 
story was not a true picture of African slavery in the South, 
but rather a portrayal of the abuses which were bound up 
with that institution. In the North there were, perhaps, 
15,000 runaway negroes. To recover them there came into 
existence, after the passage of the Fugitive Slave Law, the 
"man hunter," an odious type. Doubtless of this class 
many were as mean as Marks and as brutal as Loker in 
Uncle Tom's Cabin. For the credit of human nature it is 
to be hoped that no planter ever resembled Simon Legree, 
but that the character is a mere figment of the brain. But 
in the North millions devoured the book and believed that 
there were Haleys who tore infants from their mothers' 
arms, and Legrees who lashed fidelity and raved at piety. 
Uncle Tom's Cabin made thousands of Abolitionists. 

Election of 1852. — A Democratic convention, which 
met on June 1, 1852, named Franklin Pierce, of New 
Hampshire, for President. Two weeks later the Whigs 
assembled in the same city and nominated Winfield Scott, 
of New Jersey.^ Except Vermont, Massachusetts, Ken- 

' In June, 1852, Henry Clay, who had long desired the presidency, died 
in the city of Washington. The news of his death caused jjrofound grief 
throughout the nation. Webster, whose friends had striven for his nomina- 
tion, did not long survive the great "Pacificator," dying at his Marshfield 
home in September, 1852. Calhoun had died in March, 1850. 



334 EXPANSION AND DISSENSION 

tucky, and Tennessee, General Pierce carried every state in 
the Union, receiving 254 electoral votes to 42 cast for Scott. 
The Free-Soil vote showed a falling off since 1848. The 
Whig party never entered another presidential contest, 
having met its death in the election of 1852. It has been 
humorously said that it was choked to death in an effort 
to swallow the Fugitive Slave Law. 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — How did Tyler offend the Whigs? What 
was the Webster- Ashburton Treaty? What caused the war between 
Texas and Mexico? In what battle did the Texans win their inde- 
pendence? What nations claimed the Oregon country? When did 
American settlers begin to enter that territory? What occurred dur- 
ing the summer of 1844? What did Americans want from Mexico? 

What was the first collision with the Mexicans? What battles 
and what siege marked the campaign from the Rio Grande? What 
was the last great battle under Taylor? Who conducted the cam- 
paign from Vera Cruz? Name the early battles on the way to 
Mexico. 

What American with an armed party was in California before the 
war began? By what party was he afterward joined? Who com- 
pleted the conquest of California? What treaty ended the war with 
Mexico ? Name the principal changes resulting from the war. What 
was the result of the Presidential election of 1848? 

Describe the California missions. How was gold discovered in 
California? How did people go thither? What was the nature of the 
dispute between the North and the South ? State the provisions of 
the Compromise of 1850. Describe the new fugitive slave law, and 
the difficulties in its enforcement. What was the result of the elec- 
tion of 1852? 

References. — Robert McN. McElroy, The Winning of the Far 
West; Right Reverend Thomas O'Gorman, The Catholic Church in 
the United States; McMaster, A History of the People of the United 
States; Dellenbaugh, Fremont and Forty-Nine; William Birney, James 
G. Birney and his Times; Henry Wilson, Rise and Fall of the Slave 
Power in America. 



CHAPTER XXVI 



EFFORT TO EXTEND SLAVERY 



Brief Repose. — Franklin Pierce was inaugurated March 
4, 1853. The result of the election must have convinced 
him that the antislavery agitation was unpopular, and it 
may be that he looked forward to a quiet term of office. In 
this he was disappointed, for in a httle while the quarrel 
over slavery was again raging.^ At 
that time Senator Stephen A. Douglas, 
of Illinois, came before the public as 
an aspirant for the high office of Pres- 
ident. In the Senate he was chair- 
man of the Committee on Territories, 
and their organization was well suited 
to his ability. 

Kansas-Nebraska Act. — In a re- 
port made to the Senate, Douglas an- 
noiunced the discovery of a great prin- 
ciple settled by the Compromise of 
1850, a principle that would in his opinion forever remove 
the question of slavery from the halls of Congress and leave 

1 The perseverance of proslavery men had brought about the annexation 
of Texas and the conquest of the Southwest. But the South was still uneasy. 
Further to protect the institution of slavery she longed for the possession of 
Cuba. In 1848 President Polk had offered $100,000,000 for the island, but 
Spain refused to sell it. When the great powers of Europe were occupied 
with the Crimean War, three American ministers met at Ostend, in Belgium, 
whence they issifed (1854) a declaration known as the Ostend Manifesto. 
This paper stated that the possession of Cuba by the United States was 
necessary to protect slavery : if Spain would not sell it at a fair price, then, by 
every law, "human and divine," it should be wrested from her. But the 
United States did not act on this suggestion. 

335 




STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS 



336 EFFORT TO EXTEND SLAVERY 

it to ihose who were directly interested. The bill in its final 
form created two territories, Kansas and Nebraska, in the 
vast unoccupied region extending west of Missouri and the 
Missouri River to the Rocky Mountains, north of 36° 30' 
(map, page 330). It asserted that the slavery restriction 
of the Missouri Compromise (page 281) was set aside by 
the legislation of 1850. Finally it stated the principle of 
"squatter sovereignty," namely, that the inhabitants of 
each territory were to decide, at the time of their admission 
into the Union, whether the state should be free or slave. 
Though the Free-Soilers, including Salmon P. Chase, William 
H. Seward, and Charles Sumner, worked hard to defeat the 
bill, it was passed by Congress and signed by the President 
in 1854. 

Results of the Act. — In the South the act was every- 
where accepted by Whigs as well as Democrats. All Whig 
newspapers at the North denounced it, while the Demo- 
cratic party and press were divided. Two or three hundred 
public meetings in that section protested against it, while 
but five or six meetings supported it. 

The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska bill had the follow- 
ing results: (1) It roused Abraham Lincoln, who was losing 
interest in politics when the repeal of the Missouri Com- 
promise gave a bent to his ambition. (2) It made the Fugi- 
tive Slave Law a dead letter at the North. (3) It soon 
led to the formation of a new antislavery party called 
Republican. (4) It destroyed what, was left of the Whig 
party. (5) It caused the downfall of the Democratic party 
in the North. 

Horace Greeley said that Pierce and Douglas made more 
Abolitionists in three months than Lloyd Garrison and 
Wendell Phillips, the leading AboUtionist agitators, could 
in half a century. Douglas declared that it was possible 
for him to travel from New York to Chicago by the fight 



THE STRUGGLE FOR KANSAS - 337 

of his own burning effigies. Three hundred ladies from an 
Ohio village sent him thirty pieces of silver. 

The Struggle for Kansas. — There began between the 
Free-Soilers and the proslavery men a seven years' struggle 
for the possession of Kansas. Thinking that the bill would 
give that territory over to slavery, people from western 
Missouri at once began to stake out the most desirable land 
and to make settlements at Atchison, Lecompton, and else- 
where in northeastern Kansas. About July, 1854, many 
colonists went into the territory from Iowa, Illinois, and 
Indiana. During the same summer the Emigrant-Aid 
Society, of which the leading spirit was Eli Thayer, sent its 
first party from New England. They founded Lawrence, 
Topeka, Osawatomie, and other places in eastern Kansas. 
The first parties sent out by the Society went unarmed. 

In October, 1854, the people of Missouri organized 
"Blue Lodges." To them territorial sovereignty meant 
the right to cross the border into Kansas and in the interest 
of slavery to vote at elections. Therefore on November 29 
there entered that territory 1729 Missourians, who voted 
for a delegate to Congress. At one of the polls 604 votes 
were cast, but of these only 20 were legaL At the election 
of a territorial legislature, March 30, 1855, Missourians to 
the number of 5000, armed with guns, bowie knives, 
revolvers, and clubs, and supplied with liberal rations of 
whisky, marched into Kansas, Senator Atchison leading 
one of the companies. In this election three fourths of all 
the votes polled were cast by Missourians, who threatened 
with death any one that signed a protest. 

The South approved all that had been done by the "Border 
Ruffians." The North was well informed about affairs in 
Kansas, for the intelligent New England settlers often wrote 
home, and every letter was read by almost the entire com- 
munity, after which it was printed in the county newspaper. 



338 EFFORT TO EXTEND SLAVERY 

The Kansas Free-Soilers. — The leader of the Free- 
Soilers was Dr. Robinson, who had gained experience during 
the unsettled times in California. He sent to New England 
for Sharpe's rifles, which were received at Lawrence in 
packages marked "books." 

The Topeka convention of Free-Soilers framed for Kan- 
sas a constitution which prohibited slavery. Under this 
they set up a state government and asked for admission to 
the Union. Thus there grew up in Kansas two hostile 
governments.! When the free-state legislature attempted 
to meet at Topeka, its members were dispersed by Colonel 
Sumner, who was acting under the orders of President 
Pierce. In a word, the authorities in Washington were in 
favor of the proslavery party in Kansas.^ The territorial 
legislature made Kansas a slaveholding territory, and so 
it remained for several years, until the Free-Soilers, who 
were largely in the majority, succeeded in carrying the 
elections. Meanwhile an attempt to admit Kansas as a 
state under a proslavery constitution — the Lecpmpton 
Constitution — was nearly successful. 

' In the "Wakarusa War," about 1500 armed Missourians encamped 
near Lawrence, the chief city of the Aid Society. Governor Shannon pre- 
vented a conflict, and the Missourians went home. 

Emigrants from the free states on their way through Missouri were 
stopped and turned back, cannon having been placed along the Missouri 
River to prevent steamboats from ascending. However, many reached 
Kansas by way of Iowa and Nebraska, but they were relieved of their arms 
by United States soldiers. 

2 From the plains of Kansas the quarrel was taken to the halls of Congress. 
In May, 1856, Senator Charles Sumner, of Massachusetts, in a speech called 
The Crime Against Kansas, attacked with studied severity Senator Atchison, 
responsible for much of the trouble in that territory, and Senator Butler, 
who happened to be absent. A few days later, while Sumner sat at his desk 
after the adjournment of the Senate, Preston Brooks, a kinsman of Butler 
and a Representative from South Carolina, beat him over the head with a 
cane, and did not desist until Sumner was unconscious. The assault could 
not have been more cowardly. On the other hand, Sumner's address was 
offensive and was designed so to be. 



PERSONAL LIBERTY BILLS 339 

Personal Liberty«Bills. — So strong was Northern oppo- 
sition to the Fugitive Slave Law, that, except two, all the 
free states passed laws making it difficult for an owner to 
recover a runaway slave. This had the effect of nullifying 
that law, but the South, by repealing the Missouri Com- 
promise, had already broken the agreement between the 
sections. The repeal, it is true, was a measure of Senator 
Douglas, but it was passed by Southern votes. 

Northern opposition was also shown by the general 
sympathy with the Underground Railroad. This was not 
a railway, but rather a system of routes over which negroes 
could be carried from point to point until in safety they 
could be sent to Canada. Arriving past midnight at the 
home of an agent of the system, the fugitive was fed and 
later, concealed under bags or hay, was taken farther on. 

Political Parties in 1856. — In February, 1856, an 
"American" or "Know-Nothing" convention met in 
Philadelphia. Their organization had the grips, passwords, 
and other incidents of a secret society. After a profession 
of holiness their platform declared that "Americans must 
rule America," a broad principle narrowed by the pro- 
vision that "No person should be selected for political 
station (whether of native or foreign birth) who recognizes 
any allegiance or obligation of any description to any 
foreign prince, potentate, or power, ..." This was in- 
tended to exclude from office all Catholics, because of their 
spiritual allegiance to the Pope.^ The Know-Nothings 
nominated Ex-President Fillmore for President. 

In June, 1856, an organization made up of antislavery 
men and calHng itself the Republican party, met in Phila- 
delphia and nominated John C. Fremont, of California, for 

1 In the present generation there was organized the American Protective 
Association (A.P.A.), a society equally intolerant. In any era of peace such 
an organization is likely to spring up. 



340 EFFORT TO EXTEND SLAVERY 

President. The new party regarded ^t as "the duty of 
Congress to prohibit in the territories those twin relics of 
barbarism, polygamy and slavery." 

The Democrats, in their convention, nominated James 
Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, for President. They con- 
demned the aims of the Know-Nothings. 

The Election of 1856. — The Republican candidate 
showed unexpected strength. In one of his early expedi- 
tions in the Rocky Mountains, Fremont had cut the sign 
of the cross on the face of Independence Rock. Writing 
of the incident he said: "I made on the hard granite the 
impression of a large cross, which I covered with a black 
preparation of India-rubber, well calculated to resist the in- 
fluences of wind and rain. It stands amidst the names of 
many who have long since found their way to the grave, 
and for whom the huge rock is a giant grave-stone." 

Now that Fremont was a candidate for the presidency, 
bigotry magnified his reverential act into a crime. Those 
who have studied his remarkable career believe that the 
sign of the cross lost him many a vote. This we may 
believe, for 874,543 ballots were cast for the Know-Nothing 
candidate. Though Fremont was himself an Episcopalian, 
his father was a Catholic, as were nearly all his early 
scientific friends. He received 114 electoral votes, while 
Buchanan received 174 and was therefore elected. 

Dred Scott Decision. — In his inaugural address, March 
4, 1857, President Buchanan said that there would soon be 
handed down by the United States Supreme Court a de- 
cision which would set at rest the vexed question of slavery. 
The expected opinion was in the case of Dred Scott, a negro 
slave of Dr. Emerson of the United States army. The 
master had taken him into Illinois, free soil by the Ordi- 
nance of 1787, then to Fort Snelling, Minnesota, which was 
free soil by the provisions of the Missouri Compromise, 



THE LINCOLN-DOUGLAS DEBATES 341 

After living several years in free territory Dred Scott re- 
turned with his master to Missouri, where he sued for his 
liberty. Finally he appealed his case to the United States 
Supreme Court. In delivering its opinion Chief Justice 
Roger B. Taney declared: (1) that Congress could not ex- 
clude slavery from the territories, (2) that the Missouri 
Compromise was unconstitutional and void, and (3) that 
persons of African birth or descent could not be citizens of 
the United States, and therefore could not sue in its courts.^ 

The decision in the case of Dred Scott opened to slavery 
the territories of IMinnesota and Oregon, which had hitherto 
been free soil. The opinion of the Supreme Court did not 
stop the slavery agitation, but led to a renewal of the strife. 

The Lincoln-Douglas Debates. — As a young man Abra- 
ham lincoln had been a Whig of antislavery sentiments. 
In 1858 the people of Illinois were to elect members to a 
legislature which would appoint a United States Senator. 
The Democrats favored the reelection of Senator Douglas; 
the Republicans declared for Lincoln. In an early address 
Lincoln said that a "house divided against itself cannot 
stand " and that "this government cannot endure per- 
manently half slave and haK free." This and other state- 
ments of Lincoln were noticed by Douglas. Messages were 
exchanged, and a series of joint debates agreed upon. 
Because of his undoubted ability Senator Douglas, a man 
of small stature, was called "the little Giant," but the 
merciless logic of Lincoln gave him the advantage in their 
arguments. The subjects discussed were popular or " squat- 
ter " sovereignty, the extension of slavery into the terri- 
tories, and the Dred Scott decision. Though the Republi- 
cans lost the Illinois legislature, and Douglas was reelected 
Senator, Lincoln became a national character. Because of 

1 Taney laid down what he believed was the law. He had freed his own 
slaves without compensation. 



342 



EFFORT TO EXTEND SLAVERY 



his masterly addresses the tide of success soon began to turn 
toward the RepubUcans. 

The John Brown Raid.^ — Having collected and drilled 
a company of volunteers, John Brown astonished the 
country by capturing the village of Harper's Ferry, Vir- 
ginia, on Sunday evening, October 16, 1859. He placed a 

guard on the 
bridge to stop rail- 
way trains, ar- 
rested people who 
ventured on the 
streets, and seized 
the United States 
a r s e n al , which 
contained 100,000 
rifles. His object 
was to arm the 
slaves of Virginia 
and other states, 
and assist them 
in winning their 

JOHN BROWN PREPARING ARMS FOR NEGROES t f 

freedom by force. 

Brown permitted the conductor of a Baltimore and Ohio 

train to resume his journey. When that official arrived in 




^ John Brown, a descendant of Peter Brown of the first Mayflower 
company, was born at Torrington, Connecticut, in 1800. While traveling 
with his father, he had seen a master beat a negro boy of about his own age. 
This incident is said to have been the beginning of his dislike of slavery. 
When the fight was hottest in Kansas, his sons residing there asked him to 
send some rifles, and to be sure that they would be received, he went in per- 
son with the guns. Brown's violent conduct in the Kansas struggle dis- 
pleased his antislavery friends there. Later he went to New England to beg 
assistance for promoting a project. The Abolitionists generally gave him 
no encouragement. Nevertheless, from some of them he received the money 
with which he bought weapons and afterward rented a vacant farm not far 
from Harper's Ferry. 



THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION OF 1860 343 

Washington, he informed the authorities, who at once sent 
Colonel Robert E. Lee with a small force to restore order. 
Brown and four followers were captured; ten, including two 
of his sons, were killed; and seven escaped. The prisoners 
were taken to jail and afterward indicted under the laws of 
Virginia. After a fair trial Brown was hanged on Decem- 
ber 2, 1859. 

The conduct of Brown seemed to prove about all that the 
South had ever said against the Abolitionists. In the North 
the less excitable viewed his fate with indifference; some 
even approved his punishment. But in the opinion of an 
element, ever growing larger, Brown's conduct had proved 
him a hero and martyr. His rash attempt, however, 
greatly weakened Union sentiment at the South. 

The Presidential Election of i860. — When the Demo- 
cratic convention met at Charleston, South Carolina, in 
April, 1860, the delegates were unable to agree upon a 
ticket, so badly divided was the party by the question of 
slavery in the territories. During a session of ten da,ys 
nothing was done. The northern wing of the party, in 
convention at Baltimore, afterward nominated Stephen A. 
Douglas for President, while the southern delegates, in a 
convention of their own, named John C. Breckenridge. 
The Constitutional Union party, largely made up of former 
Know-Nothings, nominated John Bell for President. The 
Republicans selected for their standard bearer Abraham 
Lincoln, of Illinois. Older antislaveiy leaders than Lincoln 
were Seward, Sumner, and Chase, but they were thought 
too radical on slavery and could not win the delegates from 
the border states; hence Lincoln was supported as a safer 
man. 

Speaking day and night, Douglas, when he found the 
North slipping from his grasp, turned toward the South 
that he might plead for the Union. He denied the right 



344 EFFORT TO EXTEND SLAVERY 

of secession, which had l^een a famiUar topic since 1850. 
But the Southern States, except three, remained loyal to 
Breckenridge. When the result was known it was found 
that Lincoln had been elected.^ 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — What was the Kansas-Nebraska Act and 
who was responsible for its passage? Who opposed it? Describe 
the struggle for Kansas. What were the Personal Liberty Bills? 
Who was the candidate of the Republican party in 1856? 

What decision of the Supreme Court extended slavery? What is 
said of the Lincoln-Douglas debates? Tell the story of John Brown's 
raid of Harper's Ferry. What was the result of the presidential 
election of 1860? 

References. — McMaster, A History of the People of the United 
States; J. Ford Rhodes, A History of the United States from the Com- 
promise of 1850 to 1877; Schouler, A History of the United States; 
Nicolay and Hay, Abraham Lincoln, a History; T. H. McKee, National 
Conventions and Platforms. 

1 The vote was as follows: 

Popular Vote Electoral Vote 

Lincoln 1,866,352 Lincoln 180 

Douglas 1,.375,157 Douglas 12 

Breckenridge 847,514 Breckenridge '. 72 

Bell 587,830 Bell 39 



Number voting 4,676,853 Total 303 

Lincoln thus had a majority of the electoral votes, though only a plurality 
of the popular vote. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
SURVEY OF THE PERIOD BETWEEN 1840 AND 1860 

Increase in Population. — By 18G0 the number of in- 
habitants in the United States had increased to more than 
31,000,000. Not a little of this growth was due to the tide 
of immigration which after 1840 had set in toward the 
shores of America. Owing to a great famine in Ireland and 
to the existence of hard times and despotic governments in 
Germany, people arrived yearly by the hundred thousand. 
The Irish of that era, oppressed by greedy landlords and a 
tyrannical government, naturally had a standard of living 
different from that which prevailed in the United States. 
Moreover, they were for the most part Catholics. The 
difference of race, customs, and religion would beget antip- 
athy against the newcomers. The Clermans, of whom 
some were Catholics, spoke a tongue unknown to the great 
majority of Americans. Besides they brought with them 
many strange customs. This double invasion caused among 
many natives a fear that American institutions were in 
danger, and, coupled with religious intolerance, led to the 
formation of the Know-Nothing party (page 339) . 

Admission of New States. — It was in 1850 that Cali- 
fornia was admitted into the Union as a state. Minnesota 
entered in 1858 and Oregon in 1859. In the year 1860, 
therefore, the l^nion consisted of thirty-three states — 
eighteen free and fifteen slave. There were also five terri- 
tories — ^ New Mexico, Utah, Washington, Kansas, and 
Nebraska. (See map, page 354.) ^ 

' III 1861 Kansas was admitted as a statr, and three new torritorica were 
erected: Dakota, Nevada, and Colorado. 

345 



346 SURVEY OF PERIOD BETWEEN 1840 AND 1860 

Education. — The beginnings of the public school sys- 
tems, for there were many different ones, have been 
described in a former section (page 301). Their improve- 
ment, though slow, was certain, and by 1860 there existed 
in each of the states a fair system of common schools. In 
favored places they were good. In the matter of free 
pubhc schools the South was behind. However, there 
were academies in which parents could pay for the educa- 
tion of their children, and colleges were increasing in num- 
ber. In addition to the common schools the larger cities 
of the North had high schools for girls. Normal schools, 
also, for the training of teachers, had already been estab- 
lished. 

Another means of education was the newspaper and the 
monthly magazine. Some of the greatest of American 
journalists belong to the decade ending in 1860. Among 
them may be mentioned James Gordon Bennett, Henry J. 
Raymond, and Horace Greeley. The editorials in the 
Herald, the Times, and the Tribune, all of the city of New 
York, exerted a mighty influence on public opinion. Peri- 
odicals like The North American Review, Harper's, the 
Atlantic, and the Sotdhern Literary Messenger, were pub- 
lishing much good prose and verse (together with some that 
was inferior). 

Petroleum. — In drilling for salt water, Thomas Kier, a 
Pittsburgh chemist, found oil in his brine. At first he 
thought it a nuisance, but later advertised it as a remedy 
for rheumatism and other diseases. Long before, in 1627, 
a French missionary had found Indians making precisely 
the same use of rock oil. They collected the oil from the 
surface of water in springs or wells. It was applied to cure 
skin affections and rheumatism, and also used internally. 
In August, 1859, Edwin L. Drake in western Pennsylvania 
drilled to the depth of sixty-five feet a well that produced 



INVENTIONS 



347 



two thousand barrels of petroleum during the first year. 
This was the beginning of an industry of the greatest value 
to all the world. In 1891, the banner year for Pennsylvania 
petroleum, the production was 
33,000,000 barrels. The oil in- 
dustry has been established in 
many parts of the United States. 

The Telegraph. — The period 
between 1840 and 1860 is noted 
for the number as well as the 
value of its inventions. Perhaps 
of the greatest importance was 
the electric telegraph, the discov- 
ery of Samuel F. B. Morse, as- 
sisted by Alfred Vail. This is 
said to have been the labor of 
seven years. In 1844, with the 
aid of money voted by Congress, Morse built the first elec- 
tric telegraph line from Baltimore to Washington. The 
first message sent over it was, ''What hath God wrought!" 
Two days later, May 27, 1844, when the Democratic con- 
vention met in Baltimore and nominated Polk for President 
(page 312), accounts of the proceedings were telegraphed 
hourly to the national capital. Further assistance was 
asked of Congress, but was refused.^ 

The Sewing Machine. — In 1846, after twelve years of 
experiment, Elias Howe made a sewing machine that would 
work. Hunt, who was earlier in the field, had not succeeded 
in perfecting his model. A few years passed before Howe's 
machine began to come into use, but in a short time it was 
tried in the home and later in the factory. Before 1860 




AN OIL WELL, PENNSYLVANIA 



* As early as 1842 Morse had laid from Governor's Island, New York 
harbor, to Manhattan Island a submarine telegraph. Though his cable was 
rude, it worked satisfactorily until broken by a ship's anchor. 




348 SURVEY OF PERIOD BETWEEN 1840 AND 1860 

there were six or more other kinds of sewing machines on 
the market. This invention saves labor, increases output, 

and furnishes employment to hun- 
dreds of thousands. 

It has been mentioned that the 
reaper was invented by Cyrus Hall 
McCormick, of Virginia, in 1831. 
However, for many years it was 
in little use. Men still cut their 
grain with a sickle. Later came 
^£l_l^j " -^^^^^^' ' ■' the cradle, now used on small or on 

backward farms. But in time the 
HOWE'S SEWING MACHINE j.p^per made its way, and with- 
out it farming on a large scale would be impossible. The 
place of the flail was taken by the threshing machine, at 
first turned by horse power and then by portable steam 
engines. The result of these and other improvements was 
to increase the amount of grain produced and to lessen its 
price. 

Vulcanized Rubber. — Crude rubber is very soft and 
sticky when warm. After long experiment Goodyear, in 
1844, discovered a method of hardening or vulcanizing 
rubber. Combs, pistol stocks, knife handles, and a multi- 
tude of other things are manufactured from hard rubber. 
If the articles are subjected to the process for a shorter time, 
they remain soft and flexible. Soft rubber is used as a 
waterproof covering for overshoes, garden and fire engine 
hose, automobile tires, and countless other things. 

Other Inventions and Discoveiies. — During this epoch, 
1840 to 1860, a remarkable discovery was made in the 
science of medicine. It was found that by breathing sul- 
phuric ether during a severe surgical operation one may be 
made insensible to pain, and yet be restored to conscious- 
ness afterwards. The honor of this discovery has been 



TRANSPORTATION 349 

claimed for Dr. Morton and Dr. Jackson, who used it in 
1846. Laughing gas (nitrous oxide) was used still earlier 
for the same purpose by Dr. Wells, of Hartford. 

In 1839 Daguerre (dah-gair') a Frenchman, patented a 
device for making pictures by the action of light on a pre- 
pared copper plate. This was the beginning of photog- 
raphy. Dr. John W. Draper, an American scientist and 
author, so improved this method, which required an ex- 
posure of twenty minutes, that pictures of persons could be 
taken in a much shorter time. Since then photography has 
steadily improved. 

First "World's Fair in America. — In 1853 the nations of 
the world joined with the United States in an exhibition of 
products in the Crystal Palace, New York. Americans then 
found that their own country would soon lead the world 
in the invention of labor-saving machinery. Like every 
American exposition, of which that was the first, it taught 
our people many useful lessons and promoted commerce. 

Improvement in Transportation. — During this period 
there was great activity in building railroads and organizing 
trunk lines. Before this epoch most of the railroads 
covered only short distances. For example, one had to 
travel over several independent lines to go from Boston to 
Albany. But by 1853 they had been united into a single 
system. In 1857 the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad reached 
St. Louis. Though intercourse between the North and the 
South was needed to make their people better acquainted, 
few railroads connected these sections. 

By 1860 improved machinery, with coal as fuel, enabled 
vessels to complete the voyage from New York to Liverpool 
in twelve days. Better transportation resulted in a better 
mail service as well as in cheaper postage. 

The Atlantic Cable. — Morse had shown that a telegraph 
line could extend under water as well as through the air. 



350 SURVEY OF PERIOD BETWEEN 1840 AND 1860 




LAYING THE ATLANTIC CABLE ^ 



A few years later, 1847, a telegraph cable, on the bottom of 
the Hudson, connected New York and Jersey City. These 
and other facts suggested to Cyrus W. Field the idea of 
connecting the Old World with the New by means of a 
submarine cable. Business men of America and England, 
and a grant of money by Congress, made it possible for him 

to undertake the 
task. When 
three hundred 
miles of his cable 
had been laid, it 
broke. There 
was a second 
failure, but 
finally, in 1858, 
he succeeded. 
During some weeks, in which hundreds of messages were 
sent, it worked and then ceased. Eight years later (1866), 
Mr. Field, who was not at all discouraged, laid another 
cable, which continued to work. Since then several cables 
have been laid across the Atlantic, and across the Pacific 
as well. The genius of Cyrus W. Field made neighbors 
of Europe and America. 

In the Orient. — The independence of our country had 
hardly been acknowledged when (1784) an American 
trading vessel, the Empress of China, cast anchor in the 
harbor of Canton, one of the great cities of the East. In 
1790 President Washington appointed a consul to that port 
and more than half a century later Caleb Cushing went as 
commissioner to China. He induced the Chinese Empire to 
make a treaty with the United States and to open five ports 
to American trade. The friendly relations thus begun in 

* The Great Eastern, used in laying this cable, was the largest ship then 
afloat. 



THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH COMPARED 351 

the East were extended in 1854, when Commodore Matthew 
C. Perry, with a fleet of warships, was sent to Japan. Up 
to that time, even for purposes of trade, foreigners were not 
admitted to that country. It was, in fact, a ''Hermit 
Nation." After Perry's visit treaties of friendship and of 
commerce were made and relations between Japan and the 
United States became very cordial. 

The North and the South Compared. — In commerce 
and industries, and also in population, the North had grown 
faster than the South. In 1790 these two sections were 
about equal in population; but the census of 1860 showed 
that the free states had twice as many people as the slave 
states. Therefore, in the important matter of raising men 
for military service the North was much better off than the 
South. Another advantage was the possession of mines, 
furnaces, rolling mills, steel mills, shipyards, and factories. 
So marked was this superiority that the value of Northern 
manufactures was five times as great as that of Southern 
manufactures. 

On the other hand, the South produced the cotton which 
was then the chief export of the United States; so important 
a part did it play in our commerce and manufactures that 
it was called Kng Cotton. The Southern people, also, 
were more used to firearms and to outdoor life than the 
Northerners; it was therefore expected that they could 
form armies more quickly. There were in the slave states 
a number of military schools and many survivors of the 
war with Mexico, for that was a Southern more than a 
Northern conflict. Fully persuaded that Northern fanatics 
were interfering in their domestic affairs, and would con- 
tinue so to do. Southern leaders resolved to leave the Union 
and set up a government of their own, a government in 
which each state should retain its sovereign rights. The 
fact that the Democratic party had been in power nearly all 



352 SURVEY OF PERIOD BETWEEN 1840 AND 1860 

the time from 1800 to 1860, and at that moment controlled 
the government, enabled Southern supporters to disperse 
the navy to distant stations, thus delaying any preparation 
of the Federal government for a conflict. By their resigna- 
tions, also. Southern officers could weaken the United 
States army in case of war. The election of President 
Lincoln by antislavery votes, was followed by four months 
of preparation by Southern leaders. In perfect security 
they organized a league of cotton states, and when Lincoln 
was inaugurated, as we shall see, the South was confident 
that it could maintain its independence. 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — What streams of immigration flowed into 
this country from 1840 to 1860, and what effect did they have on 
Protestant Americans? Tell what is said of the improvement in 
education. Name the more important inventions and discoveries of 
this period. 

How did the North compare with the South in 1860? 

References. — J. Ford Rhodes, A History of the United States; 
Morse, Abraham Lincoln (American Statesmen); Schouler, A History 
of the United States; Henry Wilson, Rise and Fall of the Slave Power 
in America; Nicolay and Hay, Abraham Lincoln, a History. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
THE CIVIL WAR (1861-1863) 

Close of Buchanan's Term. — In the Southern States, 
as in the North, there were many forts owned by the United 
States. On December 17, 1860, Governor Pickens, of 
South CaroUna, sent a private message to President Bu- 
chanan asking for the surrender of Fort Sumter; for, he 
stated, it was feared in Charleston that Major Anderson, 
who commanded, would turn its guns upon the city. The 
President replied that he had no authority to give to South 
Carolina property which belonged to the United States, 
and that he had no legal right to break up the Union. 

After midday, December 20, 1860, crowds thronged the 
streets of Charleston, in which they read placards giving 
the first notice of secession. In the evening the members 
of the South Carolina secession convention marched to In- 
stitute Hall, where they signed the Ordinance. In closing, 
the presiding officer announced: "The Ordinance of Seces- 
sion has been signed and ratified, and I proclaim the State 
of South Carolina an Independent Commonwealth." 

Causes of Secession. — As to the wisdom of secession 
the delegates had no doubt, but as to the reason for so 
serious an act there was little agreement. One ascribed 
it to the election of Lincoln, another to the failure of the 
North to execute the Fugitive Slave Law, while a third 
believed that a sufficient cause was the antislavery feeling 
in the free states. Perhaps a majority of the delegates 
believed that the doctrine of State's Rights was a satisfac- 
tory explanation of what had happened in Charleston. In 
substance that doctrine was : (1) That on entering the Union 

353 



THE CONFEDERATE STATES 



35; 



the several states I'etaiiied their sovereignty. (2) That 
they granted the federal government only certain definite 
powers for specific ends. (3) That the federal govern- 
ment was not a sovereign over sovereignties, hut an agent 
between them. (4) That there was no common umpire or 
arbiter to settle disputes among them. (5) That each 
state might judge for itself any violation of the common 
agreement (the Constitution) and choose its own mode of 
redress. Therefore each state might adhere to the Union 
or secede from it at its own sovereign will. 

Statesmen and historians have differed as to this doctrine. 
As we have seen, Webster argued convincingly^ against it in 
the Senate, and Jackson denounced it in his prodr.inations. 

The Confederate States. — Though 
Buchanan had begged the South not 
to secede during his term, his appeal 
was ignored. Mississippi, Florida, Ala- 
bama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas 
followed the example of South Carolina, 
and on February 4, 1861, a convention 
of their delegates met at Montgomery, 
Alabama. They framed a constitution 
for the Confederate States of America, 
appointed Jefferson Davis provisional 
President, and Alexander H. Stephens 
provisional Vice President. Later both were elected by the 
people. Nearly all the forts in the South were seized by 
the seceding states; but Fort Sumter was still held ]:)y 
Major Anderson. 

President Buchanan, in a message to Congress, had said 
that he had no right to compel a state to come back into 
the Union. As soon as the Southern members of his 
Cabinet resigned, Northern men were appointed to their 
places. Afterward the President took a firmer stand and 




JEFFERSON DAVIS 




PRESIDENT LINCOLN 

356 



PRESIDENT LINCOLN'S ATTITUDE 



357 



attempted to send soldiers and supplies to Fort Sumter, 
but the transport carrying them, the Star of the West, was 
fired upon by Confederate batteries in Charleston Harbor 
and forced to return. 

Lincoln's Attitude. — In his inaugural address, March 4, 
1861, President Lincoln solemnly declared: "I have no 
purpose, directly or indirecftly, to interfere with the institu- 
tion of slavery in the states where it exists. I believe I have 
no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so." 

After stating that the Union is older than the Constitu- 
tion and briefly relating its history, Lincoln continued: 
"It follows from these views that no state upon its own 
mere motion can lawfully get out of the Union; that re- 
solves and ordinances to that effect are legally void; and 
that acts of violence, within any state or states, against 
the authority of the United States, are insurrectionary or 
revolutionary according to circumstances." In regard to 
enforcing the laws, he added : 
"There needs to be no blood- 
shed or violence; and there 
shall be none, unless it be 
forced upon the national 
authority." 

Bombardment of Fort 
Sumter.' — President Lincoln 
decided to hold Fort Sum- 
ter, and to send the neces- 

T . ^ . . CHARLESTON HARBOR 

sary supplies tor mamtammg 

the garrison.! On the morning of April 12, 1861, the fire 

of many Confederate batteries was directed against Fort 




' The Confederates had been informed by Major Anderson that in one or 
two days his men would be without provisions and that he would be com- 
pelled to abandon the fort. But President Davis refused to wait and ordered 
General P. G. T. Beauregard, who had a force of 7000 men, to take the place. 



358 



THE CIVIL WAR 



Sumter. The little garrison gallantly defended itself for 
thirty-four hours, but when the walls began to crumble and 
the wood-work caught fire, Anderson surrendered, Sunday 
afternoon, April 14. With their tattered flag flying and 
with drums beating, the garrison marched out and with their 
commander were allowed to leave for New York. The 
United States flag was lowered and 
the stars and bars, of the Con- 
federate States, hoisted in its place. 
As Lincoln had foreseen, the fir- 
ing on Sumter silenced the voice of 
faction and united the North. Men 
like Douglas supported the Union. 
The North believed that the war 
began wpon the question of the right of 
the United States to defend its author- 
ity and its flag. In the Southern 
view, the war was in defense of 
Southern rights and for Southern 
independence. 

The Call for Volunteers. — On 
April 15 Lincoln called for 75,000 
militia to serve three months. 
When the states were asked for 
their quotas of troops, they were 
It was this request that led to the 
secession of Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Ten- 
nessee. By the 8th of June eleven states had joined the 
Confederacy. When Virginia united with the seceding 
states, the Confederate capital was moved from Mont- 
gomery, Alabama, to Richmond, a point from which it 
would be easy to attack Washington. 

In the free states the pulpit, the platform, and the press 
called upon the i)eoplc to defend the L^nion. The response 




A UNION SOLDIER 



compelled to take sides. 



THE CALL FOR VOLUNl^EERS 



359 



was prompt. The Nortli was swept by a mighty wave of 
patriotism. From farm and shop, mine and foundry, 
college and bank came eager men. Squads became com- 
panies, companies grew to regiments, and regiments swelled 
to armies. In hamlet, town, and city was heard the roll of 
drums and the tread of marching men.^ 

The Confederate government, on the other hand, had 
made provision for raising troops, 
organizing a navy, borrowing money, 
and sending commissioners to Europe 
to form treaties of commerce and 
friendship. Instead of reporting to 
the Postmaster-General at Washing- 
ton the postmasters in the seceding 
states recognized a similar official in 
Richmond. In the South, Lincoln's 
call for troops was regarded as a 
declaration of war, and the people 
of that section rose as one man to 
repel the invaders. By April 29 
there were 25,000 Confederates under 
arms. Because of the troops assem- 
bling in Virginia, the President and 
others were alarmed for the safety -'^ confederate soldier 
of Washington, which, by the action of Baltimore officials, 
had for a time been cut off from the North.^ 




1 The President issued a second call and in ten weeks from the firing on 
Sumter more than 180,000 volunteers were under arms. Two days after 
the first call the Sixth Massachusetts passed through New York on its way 
to Washington. While marching through Baltimore that regiment was 
attacked by a mob of Confederate sympathizers. In the disturbance four 
soldiers and nine citizens were killed and many wounded. 

2 Four border slave states — Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and 
Missouri, remained in ihe Union, but were divided in sympathy between 
North and South. Kentucky for a time maintained neutrality. In Missouri 
Francis P. Blair, Jr., went to the support of the Union General, Nathaniel 



360 



THE CIVIL WAR 



Bull Run. — Confederate troops under Beauregard occu- 
pied a line less than forty miles from Washington. The 

United States army- 
was commanded by 
General Winfield 
Scott, who was be- 
lieved to be too old 
for active work in the 
field. Like a veteran 
soldier, Scott was 
making careful prep- 
arations, when Gen- 
eral Ii'win McDowell 
was ordered to push 
back the Confederate 
line in the direction 
of Richmond. At the 
battle of Bull Run (or 
Manassas), July 21, 
1861, the advantage 
at first was with the 
Union forces, but later 
the Confederates were joined by troops from the Shenandoah 
Valley, who had been under General Joseph E. Johnston. 
Disorder in the Southern ranks was promptly checked; 

Lyon. On the other hand, the friends of the South in Missouri flocked to the 
standard of General Price, opposed everything attempted by Lyon, and 
forced a civil war. On June 17, 1861, Lyon's men dispersed a Confederate 
force at Boonville, but it reassembled later and repulsed a Union attack 
under General Sigel. Soon after, Price received from Arkansas roenforce- 
ments which brought his army up to 10,000. With little more than half 
that number General Lyon attacked him at Wilson's Creek, in southern 
Missouri, where the Union general was killed and his army defeated. After 
this reverse Fremont and Hunter, Union generals, were appointed to the com- 
mand of an army that had grown large. But neither was given an opportunity 
to accomplish anything. Halleck succeeded to the command and sent for- 
ward General Curtis, before whom Price withdrew into Arkansas. 




WAR IN THE EAST, 1861-1863 



WAR IN THE EAST, 1861 1862 . 361 

the army of McDowell began to retreat and later fled in 
panic from the field. 

On the Southern side Beauregard had been ably assisted 
by General Thomas J. Jackson, who then began one of the 
most remarkable of military careers and because of the 
firmness of his men was nicknamed "Stonewall." Jefferson 
Davis, in addressing the soldiers after the battle, told them 
that enough had been done for glory. This checked pur- 
suit of the Federal army, and, perhaps, saved Washington 
from capture. 

McClellan in Command. — The lesson learned from the 
defeat at Bull Run was that the South was prepared and 
was very much in earnest; also that untrained men could 
never save the Union. McClellan ^ was now made com- 
mander of the Army of the Potomac. He came to Wash- 
ington after the defeat at Bull Run and spent the remaining 
months of summer, the following winter, and the early 
spring of 1862 in turning untrained volunteers into soldiers. 

War in the East; Peninsular Campaign 

McClellan's plan was to take Richmond by marching up 
the peninsula between the York and James rivers. To 
this end, in April, 1862, he transported upwards of 100,000 
troops to Fort Monroe. Another army of 40,000 men under 
General McDowell was kept for the defense of Washington. 
Deceived as to the strength of the enemy, McClellan wasted 
a month. His adversary retired and fought a battle at 
Williamsburg, May 5, 1862; then continued his retreat 
toward Richmond, closely pursued by the Union army. 

' General George B. McClellan sent into western Virginia a force which 
on June 3 routed the Confederates at Philippi. After taking command in 
person, by victories at Rich Mountain and other points he swept the Con- 
federates out of that part of the state. These successes saved for the Union 
a large part of thp great state of Virginia. 



362 THE ( I\'ll. WAR 

" Stonewall " Jackson. — Lincoln was about to send 
McDowell forward to assist McClellan, when the Con- 
federates prevented it by a bold stroke. They sent "Stone- 
wall " Jackson with 17,000 men into the Shenandoah Valley 
to threaten Washington from the West.^ In the short 
space of thirty-five days Jackson marched 245 miles, fought 
and won four battles, captured many prisoners and vast 
supply trains, and so alarmed Lincoln that McDowell's 
force was held near Washington. Then Jackson marched 
back to the defense of Richmond. 

Seven Pines. — On May 31, 1862, General Joseph E. 
Johnston attacked and defeated a part of the Union army 
at Seven Pines ; but on the arrival of Federal reenf orcements 
the tide of battle turned against him and he was driven back 
to his original position. As Johnston was wounded, Robert 
E. Lee, on June 1, 1862, became commander of the Army 
of Northern Virginia. 

The Seven Days' Fight. — Besieged by a larger army, 
Lee decided to attack McClellan's right. Jackson arrived 
north of Richmond on June 26. Joined by other divisions, 
he fought a battle at Mechanicsville, in which the Union 
General Porter at first held his own. Being outnumbered, 
however, Porter retired at night to Gaines Mill, where on 
the 27th he fought all day against a large part of the Con- 
federate army led by capable commanders. Finally he was 
driven across the Chickahominy River. 

1 The good roads of the Shenandoah would soon bring him to Harper's 
Ferry, sixty miles from Washington and only seventy-five from Baltimore. 
His movements were watched by Banks, Fremont, and Milroy, whose aggre- 
gate forces outnumbered his nearly three to one. By brilliant strategy, how- 
ever, he crushed Milroy, whose army was small; he then fell upon and 
frightened Fremont, whose army was almost as large as his own; and when 
Banks was weakened, Jackson struck his force and sent him in retreat toward 
and even beyond the Potomac. The authorities in Washington endeavored 
so to dispose the Union armies as to set a trap for Jackson, but that able 
commander slipped into Strasburg, and when attacked by Shields and Fre- 
mont defeated them in two spirited battles. 



WAR IN THE EAST, 1862 



363 



At this point, by changing his base of supplies to the 
James River, McClellan outwitted Lee. On June 29 the 
Union army held its own in a severe Ixittlc at Savage's 
Station, and on the 30th in one still more despera.te at 
Frayser's Farm (Glendale). 




(iENERAL ROBERT E. LEE 



By July 1, McClellan had 
arrived at the James River. 
At Malvern Hill he selected 
a strong position, Init Lee, 
thinking the Union army de- 
moralized, ordered an assault 
and was badly defeated. 
The Confederate commander 
was deceived as to the condi-. 
tion of the Federal army and 
underestimated McClellan's 
ability. However, Lee had 
driven McClellan away from 
Richmond, so that the main 
result of the Seven Days' Fight 
was favorable to the South. McClellan's army was not 
demoralized, but its commander asked for reenforcements, 
which were refused. He had lost the confidence of his 
government. President Lincoln, who had always treated 
him with the greatest kindness, ordered him to return Avith 
his army into northern Mrginia.^ 

The Second Bull Run. — General Halleck had been called 
from the West, where his subordinates had gained victories. 
He was appointed commander of all the Union armies and 
acted as military adviser to Lincoln, and to Stanton, thc^ new 
Secretary of War. General Pope also (page 370) came from 

' In his movements MfClcUan was slow hut safo. His trained eye en- 
abled him to select suitiihle positions and when attar-ked to give a good 
account of himself. In polities IMeClellan was a Democrat and therefore 
not a favorite of Congress, which was almost entirely Republican. 



364 THE CIVIL WAR 

the West to organize a force for the defense of the capital. 
McClellan was meanwhile transporting his troops back to 
Washington and sending them to join Pope. This opera- 
tion Lee knew would require about two weeks. Jackson, 
who was once more smashing the little armies in the Shen- 
andoah, was ordered to join his chief. Jackson's part was 
to cut Pope's communications with Washington. By 
taking his army beyond a range of hills he concealed his 
movements, and marched rapidly eastward by night, getting 
behind Pope, whose supplies he seized, managing mean- 
while to keep out of Pope's way until joined by Longstreet. 
When he knew that assistance was coming, he posted him- 
self, August 29, two miles from the old Bull Run battle 
ground. There he attacked Pope, but an all-day fight 
left the positions of the combatants little changed. At 
night Pope withdrew. On August 30, however, he resumed 
the battle, was driven across the Bull Run, and pursued 
toward Washington. A stand was made at Chantilly, on 
September 1, where the pursuers were defeated. In this 
battle the gallant General Philip Kearney lost his life. 

Invasions of the North 

Antietam. — Beginning with April 14, 1861, the Southern 
armies had gained a succession of victories. This fact so 
raised the confidence of Lee that he resolved to invade the 
North. He crossed the Potomac above Washington, and 
l)y September 7 had taken his entire army of about 60,000 
men into Maryland, where he expected to be joined by 
Southern sympathizers. Jackson was sent with a strong 
force to capture the Union garrison at Harper's Ferry. 
Marching with his usual swiftness he surrounded the place 
and took 11,000 prisoners. On the loth he rejoined Lee. 
^Meanwhile McClellan, again in command, collected every 




WAR TN THE EAST, 1862 365 

available soldier and by September 12 reached Frederick, 
Maryland. 

Lee had taken up a strong position along Antietam Creek, 
where on September 16 and 17, 1862, was fought the first 
great battle in the East, perhaps the 
deadliest of the whole war. Two days 
later the Confederate forces, checked in 
their invasion, recrossed the Potomac into 
Virginia. For failing to follow the army 
of Lee with sufficient energy, McClellan 
was removed from his command, which 
was given to General Burnside. 

Fredericksburg. — Burnside obeyed 
the President's order to lead the Army geneeal george b. 
of the Potomac. By a rapid movement mcclbllan 

he attempted to cross the Rappahannock and occupy the 
heights behind Fredericksburg. His pontoons were not 
ready, however, and when he was able to cross the river 
Longstreet was in possesssion of the hills, while Jackson, 
always arriving at critical moments, was approaching 
rapidly. On December 13, 1862, General Franklin at- 
tacked and pierced Jackson's line, but not having sufficient 
support was finally driven back with heavy loss. Sumner 
attempted to dislodge Longstreet, who held a strong position 
on Marye's Heights. Six violent attacks were repulsed 
with slaughter.^ Burnside would not listen to the advice 
of even his ablest oflScers, and the charges continued until 
8000 men lay on the hillside. His total loss, in killed, 
wounded, and captured was more than 12,000, while Lee's 

1 Distinguished among the brave men who made these desperate dashes 
were the members of the Irish Brigade, commanded by General Thomas 
Francis Meagher, an eloquent orator and gallant officer. Irish soldiers have 
won renown on many a bloody field, but never, from Clontarf to Fontenoy 
and from Badajos (bah-dah-hos') to Waterloo, did they surpass the glorious 
deeds of that December day. 



366 THE CIVIL WAR 

loss was less than half that number (5377). The Wash- 
mgton authorities now looked for a new commander, and 
in January, 1863, bestowed the honor upon General Joseph 
Hooker. 

Chancellor sville. — Active recruiting had brought 
Hooker's army up to 130,000 men. To meet him Lee had 
only 60,000 men, but his soldiers were in high spirits after 
Fredericksburg and had boundless confidence in their com- 
mander as well as in Jackson, his brilliant subordinate. 
Hooker crossed the Rappahannock l)oth above and below 
Lee's army, but then faltered and took up a position of de- 
fense. On May 2 the Confederates feigned attack after 
attack, while Jackson was rapidly marching to charge at 
an unexpected point. He routed one corps and demoralized 
another, but in the twilight was mortally wounded by a 
volley from his own men and died soon after. His loss to 
the South could not be made up. The Confederates won 
no victories afterward, so great as those in which he took 
part. On May 3 the battle was renewed. Hooker was 
stunned by a cannon ball that struck a pillar against which 
he was leaning, and for some hours his army was left with- 
out a leader. On May 4 there was further fighting, but the 
Union forces were everywhere defeated. In three days of 
desperate battle the Northern loss was over 17,000, the 
Southern more than 12,000. This was the last great Con- 
federate victory in the East. It completely effaced the 
memory of Antietam and encouraged Lee to undertake his 
second invasion of the North. 

Lee's Plan. — The Republican party was defeated in 
most of the elections of 1862, showing that the North had 
become weary of war. There was hardly a hamlet in the 
free states without its widows and orphans. Lee believed 
that under these conditions a crushing defeat would com- 
pel the Federal government to make peace. 



WAR IN THE EAST, 1863 



367 



Gettysburg. — Lee found little difficulty in sweeping the 
Union forces from the Shenandoah Valley. On June 15 
he crossed the Potomac, and marched thence to Hagers- 
town, Maryland. By June 26 his fine army of 80,000 was 
on the soil of Maryland. At Hanover, Pennsylvania, the 
famous cavalry leader. General J. E. B. Stuart, had a sharp 
brush with a troop of Union horse. Some of Lee's divisions 
were at York and some were at Carlisle. Not being in 
harmony with Halleck, who was still embarrassing Union 
commanders, G eneral 
Hooker proposed to resign. 
His offer was accepted and 
on June 27 his command 
was given to General 
George Gordon Meade, 
who entered Pennsylvania 
three days later. At 
Gettysburg part of his 
army was attacked on Jul.y 
1, 1863. In the fighting of 
that day the advantage 
was with Lee; but Meade 
brought up the rest of his 
army and quickly occupied 
a good defensive position. On July 2 Meade, after severe 
fighting, was forced back a little, but on the advice of his 
officers resolved to fight to a finish and anticipated an 
attack on his center the following day. 

Early in the afternoon of July 3, Lee's army began a 
furious cannonade. When it had ceased, the division of 
Pickett, supported by Hill, in all nearly 16,000 men, made 
a desperate charge on the LTnion center commanded bj^ 
General Winfield Scott Hancock. With great gaps in their 
ranks, Lee's veterans moved forward as if on parade. But 




BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG 



368 THE CIVIL WAR 

cannon and rifle were doing fatal work. Hancock directed 
an attack on the flanks of the advancing column, but it 
pushed back his infantry and was only stopped when it 
reached a second line. Few of those brave men survived 
the awful fire that swept the plain on their return. With 
his army badly shattered, Lee turned southward on July 5. 
In Idlled, wounded, and missing he had lost probably 
28,000 in the fighting of three days. The Union loss was 
about 23,000. The greatest battle of the war had been 
fought, and won by the Union anny. The brave men who 
withstood the storm at Antietam and Fredericksburg at last 
had fallen to the command of a successful general. The 
Confederate commander withdrew leisurely into Virginia, 
whither he was followed no less leisurely by General 
Meade. The second invasion of the North was at an end; 
the confidence of the Confederate Army of Northern Vir- 
ginia was shaken. 

War in the West (1862-1863); Opening the 
Mississippi 

New Orleans, Baton Rouge, and Natchez. — In April, 
1862, a small army under General Benjamin F. Butler and a 
fleet under Commodore David G. Farragut appeared at the 
•mouth of the Mississippi. The city of New Orleans was 
defended by Forts Jackson and St. Philip, by heavy chains 
stretched across the Mississippi, and by a fleet. After an 
attack of six days Farragut ran past the forts, broke the 
chain and defeated the ships. On April 25, 1862, a garrison 
under Butler occupied New Orleans. Baton Rouge and 
Natchez were taken later by Farragut, and Forts Jackson 
and St. Philip surrendered to Porter. 

Beginning of Grant's Campaign. — General Ulysses S. 
Grant, destined to great fame, performed a most important 
part in opening the Mississippi farther north. Early in 



WAR IN THE WEST, 1862 



369 



February, 1862, Grant with a small army and some gun- 
boats under Commodore Foote captured Fort Henry, on 
the Tennessee River. With a larger force he then marched 
rapidly across the country to Fort Donelson, where he 



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WAR IN THE WEST, 1861-1863 

captured General Buckner and 15,000 men. It was in his 
communication with Buckner that Grant, when asked his 
terms, demanded "unconditional surrender."^ 

^ A growing army under Grant and a large force under General Don 
Carlos Buell were active in Middle Tennessee. To escape the fate of Buck- 
ner, Albert Sidney Johnston, in command at Nashville, withdrew to Corinth, 
in northern Mississippi. 



370 THE CIVIL WAR 

Shiloh. — With an arm}- of 45,000 Grant moved up the 
Tennessee River. Buell was marching to Join him with 
35,000 men. By uniting their forces they hoped to crush 
General Albert Sidney Johnston, an able commander with an 
army of 40,000. At Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing, in April, 
1862, the carelessness of Grant gave Johnston an oppor- 
tunity to cripple one army before its junction with the other. 
Early in the morning of April 6, 1862, Johnston began the 
attack. After collecting the separated Union divisions, 
Grant coolly directed the battle, but by night he was driven 
from his position. In leading a charge Johnston was mor- 
tally wounded, an event which greatly discouraged his men. 
On the following morning Grant renewed the battle with 
spirit. In the meantime Buell had come up and the Con- 
federates fell back to Corinth. As they failed in their 
purpose of driving the Union forces out of Tennessee, the 
bloody battle of Shiloh has alwaj^s passed for a Northern 
victory. However, the loss of the Federal armies was 
greater than that of the Confederates. 

Pope's Success. — Grant's victories in the interior of 
Tennessee left certain Confederate posts on the upper 
Mississippi in a situation of danger. Columbus was 
abandoned and Island No. 10 was attacked in March by 
General Pope, who took the positions with 7000 prisoners. 
Gunboats were afterward free to run on the Mississippi. 
Memphis and nearby places were then in Union hands. 
It was Pope's success on the Mississippi that afterward led 
to his command at the Second Bull Run, as we have seen 
(page 363). 

Bragg's Raid. — From Chattanooga, in southeastern 
Tennessee, General Bragg with 35,000 troops eluded Buell 
and marched northward through that state and Kentucky, 
striking terror to the citizens of Louisville and Cincinnati. 
Buell recruited his army and with a superior force went in 



WAR IN THE WEST, 1862-1863 371 

pursuit of his enemy. On Octo])ei' 8, 1862, they met at 
Penyville and engaged in a struggle which lasted till even- 
ing. Bragg then retired to Chattanooga, Buell following 
as far as Nashville, where his army was turned over to 
General Rosecrans 

Murfreesboro. — On the last day of the 3'ear 1862 Rose- 
crans attacked Bragg on Stone River near Murfreesboro, 
Tennessee. General George Thomas, of whom we shall 
heai' again, saved the Union army.^ On January 2, 1863, 
Bragg renewed the liattle, but was beaten off, when he 
withdrew to Chattanooga. The Union loss was 13,000, 
the Confederate 10,000. However, as the Federal forces 
were not driven from Tennessee, this desperate battle has 
been regarded as a Northern victory. During 1862 much 
of Tennessee and Arkansas,- and a part of Mississippi had 
l)een wrested from the Confederacj^. 

Siege and Capture of Vicksburg. — - At this time General 
Halleck, after slowly advancing to Corinth, was called to 
Washington to assist the President. For the Union cause 
it was a fortunate event, because it gave to General Grant 
the command of the large army at Corinth. When New 
Orleans and Memphis had been captured bj^^ Union forces, 
the South began to strengthen the defenses at Vicksburg, 
Mississippi. That place still controlled the great river and 
made it possible for the South to get supplies from the states 

' General Philip H. Sheridan was of great assistance to General Thomas. 

2 The command of the Confederate army in Arkansas was given to 
General Van Dorn, who was defeated at Pea Ptidge, March 7 and 8, 1862, by 
a smaller force under Curtis. When the main Confederate army was hard 
pressed at Corinth, Mississippi (page 370), Price was compelled, for lack of 
troops, to give up much of Arkansas to the Union forces. The loss of Little 
Rock, which was taken September 10, 1863, was a fatal blow to the Con- 
federate cause in that state. Northern Arkansas always had a strong loyal 
element. When Confederate reverses began to come, desertions were fre- 
quent and Union sympathizers became outspoken. By December, 1863, 
eight regiments of Arkansas troops had enlisted in the Union army. 



372 



THE CIVIL WAR 



west of the Mississippi. Grant was criticized by the news- 
papers for inactivity, but Lincoln supported him. BeHev- 
ing that he lacked enterprise, the Confederates attacked 
him at Corinth, but were easily defeated. 

The first Vicksburg expedition under General WilHam 
Tecumseh Sherman was repulsed, while another force met 
with a reverse at Holly Springs, 
Mississippi. Grant then learned 
that Vicksburg could not be taken 
from the north. Therefore, after 
failing to cut a canal to carry boats 
past Vicksburg, he sent a number of 
gunboats and transports down the 
river past the batteries, and with 
their aid took his army across the 
river below the city. Thus he was 
able to attack Vicksburg from the 
east.^ 

On July 4, 1863, General Pem- 
berton surrendered Vicksburg with about 30,000 troops, 13 
generals, 172 cannon, and 60,000 muskets. Five days later 
General Banks took Port Hudson with many prisoners. At 
last the Mississippi River was open to the Union forces from 
its source to its mouth. In almost the same hour the South 
was dealt two stunning blows, namely, at Gettysburg and 
Vicksburg. The tide of war had turned, and, what was 
of immeasurable value, the fighting in the West had dis- 
covered four great commanders, namely, Grant, Sherman, 
Thomas, and Sheridan. 

» On April 30, 1863, he captured Grand Gulf, Mississippi. He then led 
his army to Jackson in the same state, thus preventing a union of Confeder- 
ate armies. General Pemberton was defeated at Champion Hills and also at 
a crossing of the Big Black River. Afterward he entered the defenses of 
Vicksburg, where he was besieged by Grant. When two assaults had been 
repulsed, Grant proceeded to starve the garrison into surrender.^ 




GENERAL U. S. GRANT 



WAR IN THE WEST, 1863 



373 



The Battle of Chickamauga. — After the battle of Mur- 
freesboro, Rosecrans had remained inactive in central 
Tennessee. After the capture of Vicksburg, however, he 
attempted to cut Bragg's communications with Atlanta. 
On September 18, 1863, the armies met at Chickamauga 
Creek. Two days later the Union forces were driven back 
in confusion toward Chattanooga, but in his part of the field 
Thomas repulsed all attacks and took thousands of prisoners. 
Sheridan urged him to renew the fight and complete his 
victory, but Thomas, who was not only able but exceed- 
ingly cautious, believed that they had accomplished enough 
in saving their army from destruction. Because of his 
splendid service General 
Thomas was nicknamed 
"The Rock of Chicka- 
mauga." In the fighting 
of September 19 and 20 
the loss on each side was 
over 16,000. 

Lookout Mountain 
and Missionary Ridge. 
— Believing that his 
army was routed, Rose- 
crans left the field of 
Chickamauga for Chat- 
tanooga, whence he called for reenforcements. He was 
superseded by General Thomas. To aid him. General 
Hooker was sent from the army of the Potomac with 16,000 
men. Sherman brought another force, and Grant, who 
commanded nearly all the West, came from Vicksburg, to 
take personal charge. 

On November 24, 1863, Sherman attacked the end of 
Missionary' Ridge. Hooker carried the slope of Lookout 
Mountain, placed the stars and stripes on its summit, and 




CHATTANOOGA CAMPAIGN 



374 . THE CIVIL WAR 

vigorously pursued the retreating enem.y. On November 
25 Thomas and Sherman drove the Confederates from Mis- 
sionary Ridge in a wonderful battle in which Sheridan was 
a conspicuous leader. After heavy losses Bragg retreated 
to Ringgold, Georgia, where General Joseph E. Johnston 
was appointed to his command. 

These victories near Chattanooga offset the defeat at 
Chickamauga, and left the Union victorious in the West. 

QuKsrioN.s AND Referencks 

Review Questions. — When President Buchanan was asked to 
surrender Fort Sumter, what reply did he make ? What is meant by 
State's Rights? When did the Confederate States of America or- 
ganize, and what was their first capital? Did Lincoln purpose to 
destroy slavery? About what question did the war begin? De- 
scribe Lincoln's call for volunteers. What was the South doing? 
Describe the battle of Bull Run. What successes made McClellan 
commander of the Army of the Potomac? While he was advancing 
on Richmond what did "Stonewall" Jackson do? Under what cir- 
cumstances did Robert E. Lee get the command of the Confederate 
army? What encouraged Lee's first invasion of the North? Where 
was he defeated? Describe the battle of Fredericksburg. Who 
followed Burnside in command of the Union army, and where was he 
defeated? Describe Lee's second invasion of the North. Where 
and when was he defeated? 

Who opened up the Mississippi from the south? Who opened up 
the great river from the north? Tell the story of the capture of 
Vicksburg. What great commanders were discovered in the armies 
of the West? Was Chickamauga a Union or a Confederate victory? 
Describe the battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. 

References. — J. Ford Rhodes, A History of the United States; 
Nicolay and Hay, Abraham Lincoln, A History; Memoirs of Grant, 
of Sherman, of Sheridan; Schouler, A History of the United States; 
Pollard, The Lost Cause; Roman, General Beauregard's Military 
Operations. 



CHAPTER XXIX 

THE CIVIL WAR (Continued) 

Emancipation 

Proposal of Compensa;:ed Emancipation. — Lincoln's 
inaugural address aL'eady quoted (page 357) set forth his 
policy as to the South. In dealing with Delaware, Mary- 
land, Kentucky, and Missouri, he observed the greatest 
caution. But there were many in the North who demanded 
that the war should bring about the end of slavery. 

In July, 1862, Lincoln called to the White House the 
Representatives and Senators from the border states, 
namely, Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, 
and asked them to consider an offer of $400 a head for their 
slaves.i They not only declined the offer, but with the 
exception of Senator John B. Henderson, of Missouri, most 
of them refused even to present the matter to the people of 
their states. In their judgment the United States had no 
right to interfere with the states in the matter of slavery. 

Military Emancipation. — A few days after Lee was 
driven out of Maryland, September 22, 1862, the President 
gave out a preliminary proclamation announcing that in 
any state or part of a state where the people were in re- 

' According to the census of 1860 there were 432,622 slaves in the border 
states and the District of Columbia, distributed as follows: Delaware, 1798; 
Maryland, 87,188; District of Columbia, 3181; Kentucky, 225,490; Mis- 
souri, 114,965; total, 432,622 slaves. At $400 each, this would amount to 
$173,048,800. At $2,000,000 a day the war would cost in 87 days $174,- 
000,000, which was more than the estimated value of all the slaves in the 
border states. Lincoln believed that his plan would shorten the war more 
than eighty-seven days, for the lower South would not then expect to be 
joined by the border states. That hope was prolonging the struggle. 

375 



376 



THE CIVIL WAR 




STATUE OP LINCOLN THE EMAN 
CIPATOR, AT WASHINGTON 



bellion against the United States on January 1, 1863, their 
slaves would be set free, as a war measure, by the Presi- 
dent's authority as commander in chief of the army and 
navy of the United States. Accordingly, on January 1, 

1863, he proclaimed that the 
slaves should be free in all the 
seceding states, except Tennes- 
see and certain named parts of 
Louisiana and Virginia, where 
Union forces were in control. 

The Formation of West Vir- 
ginia. — By a vote of 88 to 55 
the commonwealth of Virginia, 
in April, 1861, passed an ordi- 
nance of secession. Most of 
the fifty-five Union men came 
from beyond the Alleghenies, 
where the people held few slaves. They soon organized 
a new state, which they called West Virginia. They elected 
as their governor Francis Harrison Pierpont, and sent 
Representatives and Senators to Washington. After some 
protest they were admitted to seats in Congress. Lincoln 
proclaimed West Virginia a member of the Union in the 
summer of 1863. 

Attempts to Reconstruct Tennessee. — When, in Jan- 
uary, 1861, Southern Senators left Washington, Andrew 
Johnson, of Tennessee, remained. After Grant's early 
victories, President Lincoln sent Johnson to Nashville as 
military governor and directed him to organize from the 
loyal elements in Tennessee a state government friendly to 
the Union. This work was interrupted by General Bragg's 
campaign of 1862 (page 370), but was later carried out. 

The Louisiana Plan. — At the same time Lincoln was 
attempting to organize a loyal government in Louisiana. 



EMANCIPATION; THE DRAFT 377 

According to his view, when the majority in a state 
seceded from the Union, the state Hved on in the loyal 
minority, even though that minority was small. If a 
marshal could find citizens willing to take an oath of 
allegiance to the United States equal in number to one 
tenth of the state's voters in the presidential election of 
1860, that minority would be recognized by the President 
as the lawful state and would receive the protection of the 
army and navy while organizing their loyal government 
and winning wavering people to its support. This was 
Lincoln's ten per cent plan. 

The Thirteenth Amendment. — The Emancipation Proc- 
lamation of January 1, 1863, did not affect the condition of 
slaves in the border states, in Tennessee, or in the excepted 
parts of Louisiana and Virginia. Moreover, if it had freed 
every slave in the seceding states, when the war was ended 
the planters could buy more negroes and in that way restore 
the institution. Therefore to abolish slavery there was 
proposed the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, 
which was declared ratified on December 18, 1865. Thus 
was forever removed the chief subject of dispute between 
the North and the South. 

The Draft. — By 1863 it was necessary to draft men for 
the respective armies. Congress passed a law ordering 
drafts from among the men liable for military service. A 
drafted man, however, might furnish a substitute or be 
exempt from service on payment of $300. 

A poor man, if drafted, could neither pay the $300 nor 
find a substitute. Thus in the working of the law the poor 
man saw a discrimination in favor of the rich. This feeling 
was played upon by politicians until July 14, 1863, when it 
culminated in the city of New York in robbery, rioting, and 
the hanging of negroes. Order was restored after 1000 
persons had been killed or wounded. 



378 



THE CIVIL WAR 



Negro Soldiers. — From the first moments of the war 
negroes Avere put by their owners to work upon Southern 
fortifications. It was a knowledge of this fact that led 
General Butler, when slaves escaped to his lines in Virginia, 

to declare them 
"contraband of 
war," and to re- 
fuse to restore 
them to their 
masters. But the 
South went still 
further, for when 
the same officer 
occupied New 
Orleans in May, 
1862, a Confeder- 
ate negro regi- 
If the South used 




MEMORIAL TO COLONEL SHAW, OF BOSTON, 
COMMANDER OF A NEGRO REGIMENT 



ment was among the captured troops, 
the negro, why could not the North ? 

After the Emancipation Proclamation went into force, 
January 1, 1863, Lincoln accepted the enlistment of negroes. 
During the remainder of the war about 180 colored regiments 
were mustered into the military service. 

The Blockade and the Navy 

Blockade of Southern Ports. — Early in the war Presi- 
dent Lincoln issued a proclamation declaring in a state of 
blockade all ports from Alexandria, Virginia, to Galveston, 
Texas. As already mentioned, the Southerners in office 
under Buchanan had taken care to scatter the vessels of the 
United States navy. Indeed it has been said that the 
nearest ship was at Vera Cruz, Mexico. Lincoln's procla- 
mation, therefore, was at first of little effect. However, 
distant ships were recalled, others were built, and still 



BLOCKADE OF THE SOUTH 



379 




A BLOCKADE RUNNER 



others were bought. Thus the blockade steadily grew 
more efficient until toward the close of the war very little 
was smuggled into the South and still less was exported. 

Running the Blockade. — Cotton was the chief source of 
Southern wealth. If that crop could be marketed, the 
prosperity of the seceding states Avould continue. Great 

Britain led Europe in ^._ _ 

the manufacture of ---,^ - ,,- ^^^^,-^^3^.^ ^ 

cotton goods and was 
thus the best cus- 
tomer of the Confed- 
eracy. Therefore, 
regardless of Lincoln's 
proclamation, British 
ships attempted to 
enter Southern ports. Goods of all sorts were brought 
from England to the town of Nassau in the Bahamas, 
where they were loaded on blockade runners, which on 
moonless nights arrived off Charleston or off Wilmington, 
North Carolina, dashed through the blockading squadron, 
and entered port. Cotton was loaded on the returning 
ship. 

The Trent Affair. — While neither Great Britain nor 
France recognized the independence of the seceding states, 
both powers soon acknowledged their belligerent rights. 
To urge full recognition, the Confederate authorities sent 
James M. Mason to England and John Slidell to France. 
After running the blockade Mason and Slidell took passage 
at Havana, Cuba, on the British mail steamer Trent. Hear- 
ing of this, Captain Wilkes of the United States man-of-war 
San Jacinto fired a shot, stopped the British vessel, and took 
off the two Confederates (November, 1861). In both the 
United States and England there was intense excitement. 
England demanded the release of Mason and Slidell and 



380 THE CIVIL WAR 

prepared for war. Lincoln disavowed the act of Captain 
Wilkes, and sent the envoys to Halifax, whence they con- 
tinued their journey to Europe. The conduct of Captain 
Wilkes was almost the same as the conduct of those British 
officers whose acts brought on the War of 1812. 

The Confederate Navy. — Notwithstanding the protest 
of Charles Francis Adams, United States minister to Great 
Britain, several Confederate cruisers were built or bought 
in England and permitted to go to sea, where they de- 
stroyed Northern merchant ships. Of these Confederate 
cruisers the most celebrated was the Alabama, built in 
Liverpool and equipped near the Cape Verde Islands. 
There, on the high seas, she received from an Enghsh tender 
not only her guns and crew but her commander, Raphael 
Semmes. Except her captain, one subaltern, and her flag, 
the Alabama was in nearly every respect a British vessel. 
For two years she ranged every sea from China to Brazil, 
plundering and destroying sixty Union ships. On a morn- 
ing in June, 1864, she was found by the Kearsargc in the 
harbor of Cherbourg, France. Semmes did not seek to 
escape, but went seven miles out to sea, where in a short 
engagement with the Federal vessel the Alabama was sunk.^ 

The Navy along the Coast. — So effective was the Union 
blockade of the Confederacy that in a little while there was 
distress in the South. Not only were luxuries scarce but 
even some necessaries of life were almost impossible to 
obtain. The navy also cooperated with the army in reduc- 
ing forts along the coast, and assisted in carrying troops.^ 

' The Confederate naval agent abroad was Captain John C. Bulloch, a 
graduate of the Naval Academy at Annapolis. After leaving the navy, he 
entered the merchant service and in time became an officer of wide nautical 
experience. His arrangements were made with the Laird Brothers of Liver- 
pool, who were to be paid in cotton. Other vessels of the Alabama type were 
the Florida, the Georgia, and the Shenandoah. 

2 In 1861 the forts at the entrance of Port Royal and Pamlico Sound were 
taken. During the next year the navy gained control of Albemarle and 



THE NAVY 381 

The Monitor and the Merrimac. — Because of its effect 
on naval construction the battle between the Merrimac and 
the Monitor was the most important of the contests on the 
water, ^\'hen the war began, there were both ships and 
supphes at the United States navy yard in Norfollv, Virginia. 
Fearing that they would fall into the hands of the enemy, the 
commandant destroyed both buildings and ships. One of 
the vessels that he sank w^as the Merrimac, whose hull was 
afterward found by the Confederates to be in good condi- 
tion. It was raised, equipped with ten guns, and given a 
covering of iron plates that protected it to the water's edge. 
This was the first ironclad warship. 

In March, 1862, the Merrimac, renamed the Virginia, 
steamed across Hampton Roads, rammed and sank the 
Cumberland, drowning 100 men, and chased the Congress 
into shallow water, where she was forced to surrender. 
Later she was fired by the Confederates. The Merrimac, 
having proved her value, sailed back to her anchorage, in- 
tending to destroy the remainder of the Union fleet on the 
next day, for the guns of the wooden ships made no impres- 
sion upon her armor. The whole North was thrown into 
consternation. It was feared that the blockade would be 
broken. Full of confidence, the Merrimac on the following 
morning steered straight for the Minnesota, but before 
getting within range was met by a queer-looking craft that 
had come from New York during the night. The deck of 
the strange vessel was but two feet above the water and 
about all that could be seen from a distance was a plated 

Pamlico sounds by the capture of Roanoke Island, Elizabeth City, Fort 
Macon, and Newbern. Later (18G4) Sumter was destroj-ed by the navy. 
In 1862 Farragut took New Orleans and during 18G4 cut Mobile's communi- 
cations with the sea. 

The gunboats of Foote enabled Grant to take Fort Hcnrj^ and those of 
Porter took his troops past Vicksburg. On the inland waters they were of 
the greatest service both for attack and transportation. 



382 



THE CIVIL WAR 



turret, which was revolved by machinery. She mounted 
two heavy guns.^ The Merrimac attempted to ram the 
Monitor, for such was the name of the new adversary, but 
she ghded away Uke a duck, all the while making good use 
of her large guns. After four hours both vessels retired to 
make some slight repairs, but the conflict was not resumed. 




THE MEHHiMAC AND THE MONITOR 

After McClellan's army landed at Fort Monroe in April, 
1862, the Confederates destroyed the Merrimac so that it 
should not be captured. The celebrated duel showed that 
the usefulness of wooden battleships had passed .^ 

1 Mention has already been made (page 300) of Captain John Ericsson, 
a Swedish engineer who invented the screw propeller. He it was who de- 
signed the Monitor, a sort of sea-going battery. It would be difficult to 
overestimate its value to the Union. 

» In 1864 the Confederacy was building at Plymouth, North Carolina, 
another ram called the Albemarle, but she was injured by a torpedo exploded 
by Lieutenant Cushing, who went from Norfolk in a small launch by interior 
waterways. The story of his exi>loit is of great interest. 



RELATIONS WITH FOREIGN POWERS 383 

Foreign Relations 

Relations with Great Britain. — Lincoln's sense of justice 
not less than his foresight averted war with England over 
the Trent affair (page 379). In that country a few of the 
nobiUty and some great leaders like John Bright were 
friendly to the Union, but generally the upper and the 
middle classes were hostile. The blockade, by preventing 
cotton shipments from the South, deprived multitudes of 
English people of their usual employment. Nevertheless, 
the laboring classes knew the nature of the great conflict 
and espoused the side of freedom. To influence public 
opinion in favor of the North, the President sent Reverend 
Henry Ward Beecher, an eloquent speaker, to explain to 
Englishmen the cause of the strife. 

Relations with France. - Napoleon III, Emperor of 
France, took advantage of the war to interfere in the govern- 
ment of Mexico.^ To explain the cause of our Civil War 
to the people of France, Mr. Lincoln asked the Right 
Reverend Bishop Hughes, of New York, to proceed to Paris. 
This the patriotic and eloquent clergyman cheerfully did. 

Russia showed her friendship for the United States by 
sending here a strong fleet. 

Campaigns of 1864-1865 

After the double victory of ■Missionary Ridge and Look- 
out Mountain, Grant was made commander in chief of all 
the Union armies (February, 1864). He then went East 
and made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac. 
Sheridan was transferred to the Army of the Potomac and 
was made chief of cavalry; later, as we shall see, he was 
given command of a separate army Sherman was left 

' This violation of the Monroe Doctrine, as we shall see, received atten- 
tion when the Civil War was over. 



384 



THE CIVIL WAR 



at the head of the army in the West. Grant's plan for 1864 
was to attack and keep on attacking, in the East as well 
as in the West.^ 




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CAMPAIGNS OF 1864-1865 

The Atlanta Campaign. — Joseph E. Johnston was in 
command of 75,000 Confederates for the defense of Atlanta. 
Sherman with Thomas had a force of 99,000. He began 

* If cotton could be seized in the South by the Union army and shipped 
to England, to some extent it would meet the demand of the factories and 
also deprive the Confederacy of a valuable resource. To accomplish this 
double object and likewise to get a foothold in Texas, an army under General 
Banks and a fleet under Admiral Porter jointly ascended the Red River 
toward Shreveport, Louisiana, early in 1864. On April 8 at Sabine Cross 
Roads the Federal Forces were attacked and defeated by General Richard 
Taylor. They retired with the loss of a few gunboats. 



WAR IN THE WEST, 1864 385 

to advance early in May. Though Johnston destroyed the 
railroad as he retired, it was so rapidly rebuilt that the Con- 
federate rear guard often heard the whistle of the loco- 
motive that accompanied Sherman's advance. Johnston 
selected strong positions, but generally Sherman was too 
cautious to attempt to take them by assault. From one 
stronghold after another he forced his enemy by a succession 
of flank movements. Finally the Federal army reached a 
point only six miles from Atlanta. Johnston, who saved 
his soldiers, was criticized for not fighting and on July 17 
he was superseded by General J. B. Hood. 

In three days Hood fought and lost three bloody battles 
at Peach Tree Creek, Atlanta, and Ezra Church. His loss 
was over 10,000. Sherman's losses were almost as great, 
but his army was larger. On September 2, 1864, Hood left 
Atlanta and Sherman entered. The tidings of this success 
caused rejoicing in the North. 

Hood's Raid. — To force Sherman from Atlanta, Hood 
attacked his line of communications at Allatoona, but was 
defeated. Then he went back to the Tennessee River, 
threatening Nashville. But this did not disturb Sherman, 
who sent Thomas back to Tennessee with an army that soon 
grew to 60,000, Hood's total was about 54,000, not enough 
to defeat so able a leader as Thomas, who was probably 
surpassed by no general in either army. Thomas gathered 
his forces in Nashville, and made ready to attack. Lincoln 
was afraid that Hood would escape and became impatient 
at Thomas's slow and careful methods. But all the tele- 
grams from Washington did not hasten the movements of 
Thomas. On December 15, when he felt entirely ready to 
begin, he attacked Hood, driving him back several miles. 
On the next day Thomas renewed the battle. The di- 
minished Confederate army fought desperately, but barely 
escaped annihilation. Of the 54,000 veterans with whom 



386 



THE CIVIL WAR 



Hood entered Tennessee fewer than 15,000 held together 
as a mihtary organization. The others had been killed, 
captured, or dispersed. The fine army of Johnston had 
been wrecked; the war in the West was practically over. 

The March to the Sea. — Meanwhile Sherman was 
making an unexpected move. He destroyed the railroad 
behind him, also the machine shops and other public 
property in Atlanta; and on November 15, 1864, with a 
veteran army of 60,000 and 5000 cavalry under General 

Hugh Judson Kilpatrick, 
turned his face toward the 
sea, 360 miles distant. In 
the sixty-mile zone over 
which his troops passed 
they tore up the railroads 
and did much other dam- 
age. Sherman reported 
that his army took or 
destroyed property to the 
value of $100,000,000, one 
fifth of which was of use 
to the Union cause, and 
four fifths of which was 
merely wasted. During his 
march the North knew 
nothing of his progress save what was gleaned from Southern 
newspapers.^ On December 10, 1864, Sherman arrived at 
Fort McAllister, which defended Savannah. Unable to 
hold it, Hardee's small garrison prudently withdrew on 
December 20th. Sherman then entered Savannah, and 
remained there until February, 1865. That part of the 
Confederacy east of the Mississippi had been cut in two. 




GENERAL W. T. SHERMAN 



1 In those days there were no aeroplanes and there was no wireless teleg- 
raphy. 



WAR IN THE EAST, 1864 387 

The Advance on Richmond. — On the same day in Ma\% 
1864, that Sherman began his advance toward Atlanta, 
Georgia, the Army of the Potomac, under Grant's eye, 
began an advance toward Richmond. On Maj' 4, 1864, 
the battle of the Wilderness was begun by the Con- 
federates; Lee attacked Grant as he had attacked Hooker 
under similar circumstances the year before. The Wilder- 
ness engagement of May 5 and 6 was a drawn battle with 
heavy losses on both sides. But Grant did not turn back. 
Turning to the left, he began a new advance. The next 
collision occurred at Spottsylvania Court House, where the 
fighting was most severe on May 12. It was after his heavy 
losses in this constant fighting that Grant said in a dis- 
patch, ''I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all 
summer." In eighteen days of marching and fighting the 
Union loss was 34,000. At this time Grant was just wdiere 
McClellan had been two years before. On June 3, 1CG4, 
there was a stubborn fight at Cold Harbor, six miles from 
the defenses of Richmond. Grant, wishing to crush Lee's 
army, ordered a general assault with his force of 80,000 
men. The Confederates in security shot down multitudes 
of Union troops. Grant's loss was 8000, Lee's 600. Grant 
was sharply criticized for his apparent indifference to loss 
of life; in fact, he afterward admitted his error. Dur- 
ing his advance from the Rapidan to the James, he had 
lost almost 55,000 men, while his adversary had lost but 
19,000. 

The Siege of Petersburg. — On June 14 Grant crossed 
the James River at City Point.^ He sacrificed 10,000 men 
in his attempts to take Petersburg by assault. He then 

1 General Butler was already there with a strong army operating against 
Petersburg. He was to have madf a vigorous attack on Richmond from 
the south, but moved too slowly. When he did advance he was defeated by 
a smaller force under Beauregard and then occupied a defensive position 
until Grant joined him. 



388 THE CIVIL WAR 

began to reduce it by siege.^ To ease the situation, Lee 
sent General Jubal A. Early into the Shenandoah Valley, 
to drive out the Union forces and threaten Washington. 

Devastation of Shenandoah Valley. — After hurling 
General Sigel out of the valley Early crossed the Potomac, 
defeated General Lew Wallace at the Monocacy and by 
July 11, 1864, was on the northern outskirts of Washington. 
Troops sent up by Grant defeated him next morning, but 
by a rapid retreat Early was soon back in the Valley. After 
a brief rest he dashed through Maryland and entered Penn- 
sylvania, where he burned Chambersburg, because of its 
refusal to pay tribute. 

Grant sent Sheridan w th a strong army into the Valley. 
Sheridan, who arrived early in August, 1864, had the mili- 
tary genius and almost the prudence of Thomas, but he 
had a dash that was all his own. In the Wilderness cam- 
paign he had worked havoc with Confederate supplies; in 
June he dispersed the cavalry of the famous General J. E. 
B. Stuart, the terror of the Army of the Potomac, who was 
killed in an action at Yellow Tavern. At Winchester, 
September 19, 1864, and again at Fisher's Hill, on the 22d, 
Sheridan defeated Early and drove him up the Valley, 
Then, with Grant's permission, Sheridan destroyed every- 
thing that would be of service to an army, so completely 
that, in his own language, "a crow flying over the country 
would need to carry his rations." 

Cedar Creek. — The South demanded retaliation and 
accordingly General Lee sent reenforcements to Early's 
army. In the absence of Sheridan, who had gone to Wash- 
ington, his command was surprised October 19, 1864, at 
Cedar Creek and driven back several miles. The Union 

• One incident of this siegp was the explosion of a mine followed by an 
assault. In this affair of "the Crater," Grant lost 4000 men without inflict- 
ing upon the enemy any serious injury. 



ELECTION OF 1864 



389 



General had passed the night before at Winchester and was 
riding leisurely toward his army when he heard the sound 
of cannon. Knowing that a battle was in progress, he 
urged his horse at full speed to find, on reaching the front, 
that most of his troops were in retreat, though a few regi- 
ments were confidently holding their ground. Sheridan 
renewed the battle and by night had sent Early's army in 
flight from a field which in the morning had been theirs. 
Thenceforth, Washington was safe from attack. 




Sheridan's bide 

Election of 1864. — On June 7, 1864, in convention at 
Baltimore, the Republicans or Union party renominated 
Lincoln for President and for Vice President named Andrew 
Johnson, of Tennessee, a Democrat and slaveholder but a 
strong Union man. The Democratic convention named 
General George B. McClellan for President. Sheridan's 
successes in the Shenandoah and Sherman's capture of 
Atlanta were regarded as an answer to the assertion of the 
Democratic platform that the war was a failure. The 
election, which occurred November 8, 1864, was an over- 



390 THE CIVIL WAR 

whelming victory for the Union ticket. Lincoln was re- 
elected by 312 electoral votes to 21 for McClellan.^ 

The Fall of Richmond. — After completing his work in 
the Shenandoah Valley, Sheridan joined Grant. On April 1, 
1865, he was sent against a Confederate position at Five 
Forks, where he won a success the last great victory of the 
war. Hearing of this, Grant ordered a general assault, 
which also was successful. Knowing that Richmond was 
doomed, on the morning of April 2 General Lcc notified 
Mr, Davis. His troops were moving along the line of the 
Danville railroad on their way to join Johnston in North 
Carolina. Grant was eager to crush Lee's diminishing 
army before this junction could take place. On April 5 
Sheridan seized the Danville railway, preventing escape by 
that route, and on April 8 succeeded in getting in front of 
Lee's hungry and disheartened men. Behind Sheridan's 
cavalry was a strong infantry force. When, on April 9, 
Lee ordered his men to disperse the cavalry, the Federal 
horsemen drew aside, revealing just back of them infantry 
in solid formation. There was no escape. 

Lee's Surrender. — Sheridan sent for Grant, who hurried 
to the front and with Lee arranged the terms of surrender. 
Their meeting, marked by courtesy, took place April 9, 1865, 
at the McLean house in the village of Appomattox. After 
some friendly conversation Lee inquired on what terms his 
surrender would be received. Thereupon Grant wrote out 
the terms, which were accepted. Officers were to retain 

' At this time the Confederacy was so feeble that Mr. Francis P. Blair, 
with the permission of President Lincoln, went to Richmond to visit Jefferson 
Davis to see if the war could not be ended. As a result a meeting was ar- 
ranged at Hampton Roads, where on February .3, 1865, Lincoln and Seward 
met three Confederate commissioners. To stop the war Lincoln demanded 
three things: the disbanding of the Confederate armies, the submission of 
the seceding states to the rule of Congress, and the abolition of slavery. 
These terms were not accepted, and the war continued, for .Jefferson Davis 
insisted upon Southern independence. 



SURRENDER OF THE CONFEDERATES 



301 



their horses, when they owned them, their side arms, and 
their private baggage. Grant also agreed that the cavalry- 
men and artillery men could keep their horses " for the 
spring plowing." With other officers General Lee was 
allowed to keep his 
sword. The casual- 
ties of the march and 
the battle, the in- 
roads of hunger and 
desertion reduced 
the once formidable 
Army of Northern 
Virginia to fewer 
than 27,000 men. 
After a touching 
farewell by their 
great commander. 
General Lee, the men 
in gray turned home- 
ward, their chieftain 
rode toward Rich- 
mond. The long 
tragedy was almost 
over. 

Surrender of 
Johnston. — After 
resting his men, Sherman marched north through Georgia 
and the Carolinas. Columbia, the capital of Sou^h Caro- 
lina, was burned as the army was passing through it. Con- 
federates under General Joseph E. Johnston were unable to 
stop the Union advance.^ On April 26, 1865, Johnston 

' While Johnston was waiting at Greensboro, North Carolina, to be joined 
by Lee's army, Jefferson Davis came to him on his flight southward . Davis 
advised Johnston to retire to the mountains and continue the war, but Johnston 
opposed this plan and told the fugitive President that his soldiers desired peace. 




LEE 8 SURRENDER 



392 THE CIVIL WAR 

accepted from Sherman the terms accorded to General Lee 
and surrendered 37,000 men. General Taylor, the son of 
Zachary Taylor, surrendered on May 4th the troops in 
Alabama and Mississippi, and about three weeks later Gen- 
eral Kirby Smith surrendered the troops of the department 
beyond the Mississippi. The military phase of the war 
was ended. 

Capture of Jefferson Davis. — While General Johnston 
was discussing terms of surrender with Sherman, Mr. 
Davis went to Georgia, where he was captured by Union 
soldiers. He was afterward confined, and for a time put in 
irons at Fort Monroe, where he remained a prisoner for 
two years. He was finally allowed to go out on bail, but 
was never brought to trial. 

Death of Lincoln. — The tidings of Lee's surrender 
caused general rejoicing in the North, where the event was 
hailed as the end of the war; but mirth and jollity were 
hushed by news of Lincoln's tragic death. The President 
had hoped to banish the cares of a busy day by a few hours' 
recreation at Ford's Theater, in Washington. Accompany- 
ing him to the playhouse on the fatal evening of April 14, 
1865, were Mrs. Lincoln and a few friends. While the 
President was watching the progress of the play, John 
Wilkes Booth moved noiselessly behind him, and shot him 
in the head.^ Lincoln lingered all night, but throughout 
remained unconscious. He died on the morning of April 15, 
and Andrew Johnson became President. 

1 At first the audience hardly realized what had happened. After shoot- 
ing Mr. Lincoln, Booth, brandishing a dagger, jumped upon the stage shout- 
ing, "(Sic semper tyrannis!" ("Thus be it ever to tyrants"; the motto of 
the state of Virginia.) As he leaped, his spur (the assassin was prepared for 
riding) caught in the folds of the American flag which draped the Pr-esident's 
box, and threw him heavily. In the fall he broke a leg. However, in the 
confusion he escaped, mounted a fleet horse which was in waiting outside, and 
galloped off into southern Maryland. There was instant pursuit : the fugitive 
was followed across the Potomac into Virginia, traced to his hiding place in a 
barn, and, having refused to surrender, was shot and killed by a cavalryman. 



MAGNITUDE AND COST OF THE WAR 393 

Observations on the War 

Magnitude of the War. — In his first call for volunteers 
President Lincoln suggested enlistments for ninety days, 
because not only government officials but people in general 
believed that the insurrection would be put down before the 
end of that period. Afterward men enlisted for three years 
or during the war. In special emergencies, such as Lee's 
second invasion of the North, ''home guards " served for 
thirty or sixty days. The total number of enlistments for 
the Union army was not far under 3,000,000, but it must be 
remembered that many enlisted several times. On January 
1, 1863, the Union armies contained 900,000 men, while 
those of the Confederacy included nearly 700,000, But at 
the close of the war more than 1,000,000 men were serving 
in the Union ranks, while desertion and the waste of war had 
greatly reduced the number of Confederates. During 
April and May, 1865, the total number of Southern troops 
that surrendered was about 175,000. 

Cost of the War. — The Federal government raised im- 
mense sums in taxes, but during the progress of the war paid 
out for expenses far larger amounts of money. The end of 
the conflict left a national debt of neariy $3,000,000,000. 
Experts have estimated that the war cost both sections 
$8,000,000,000. The share of the North is usually given 
as $5,000,000,000 and that of the South as $3,000,000,000. 
But these estimates are the rudest sort of guesses. Forty 
years after the close of the war the United States govern- 
ment was paying yearly in pensions $165,000,000. It is 
clear that in ten or fifteen years this annual outlay would 
run into other billions. For the support of the Union 
army and navy the cost soon rose to $2,000,000 a 
day, and toward the close of the war grew to be about 
$3,000,000. 



394 THE CIVIL WAR 

Conditions in the South. — After the blockade began 
to be rigidly enforced, the South was reduced tq a condition 
of distress. It was almost impossible there to get so com- 
mon a necessity as salt. Tea and coffee were soon impos- 
sible to obtain. Homespun clothing, colored with home- 
made dyes, was generally worn, but even this was scarce and 
expensive. Repeated issues of Confederate paper money 
so raised prices that, according to Mrs. Jefferson Davis, 
by 1864 a pair of shoes cost $150 and a barrel of flour 



War Money. — When the war broke out, the only money 
in circulation was gold and silver coin and the notes issued 
by the state banks. But the coin soon disappeared from 
circulation. In March, 1863, therefore, Congress issued 
$50,000,000 in fractional currency. This included bills of 
the following denominations: 3, 5, 10, 15, 25, and 50 cents. 
During the four years of war, also, the United States 
treasury issued more than $450,000,000 in paper money, 
popularly known as greenbacks.^ 

National Banks. — Besides the paper money issued by 
the Federal government there were in circulation thousands 
of different kinds of notes put out by the state banks. In 
value these bills, though of the same denomination, were 
quite unequal; some were entirely worthless. To replace 
them by a sound and uniform currency, and also to pro- 
vide a market for government bonds, Congress established 

1 The South suffered far more than the North from the devastation of 
war. Former pages have referred to the wasting of the Shenandoah Valley 
and of that zone in Georgia traversed by Sherman's army. But these were 
only striking examples of what, on a smaller scale, was constantly occurring 
in other areas. Cattle were driven away or killed where they stood. 
Fences, barns, crops, dwellings, and even the implements of farming we're 
frequently devoted to the flames. Atlanta, Columbia, Charleston, Rich- 
mond, and other cities were almost destroyed by siege or by fire. 

2 In 1864 a "greenback" dollar was worth only forty cents in gold, but 
earlier in the war its value ranged from fifty to seventy cents. 



t 



MILITARY PRISONS 



395 



(1863) the national banking system, one of the most im- 
portant measures of the war.^ 

Military Prisons. — In the early part of the war, es- 
pecially in the East, in almost every engagement Union 
soldiers were captured by companies and even by regiments. 
They were sent as prisoners of war to the Libby ware- 
house at Richmond, to Andersonville, Salisbury, Florence, 
and other places. The Andersonville prison, a great 




LIBBY PRISON 

stockade in Georgia, is perhaps the best known of them all. 
At one time it held 33,000 Union soldiers. Even in the 
beginning, when the South was comparatively prosperous, 
prisoners of war suffered hardships that no pen can de- 
scribe. In the prison camps of the North also, where there 



' By the Act of 1863 any association of five or more persons having a 
capital of at least $100,000 could organize a national bank, buy national 
bonds to the amount of one third of the capital, deposit those bonds in the 
treasury at Washington, and issue "national bank notes" to the amount of 
90 per cent of such deposit. 



396 THE CIVIL WAR 

was not the same excuse as in the impoverished South, 
there was much cruel suffering. 

Political Parties during the War. — By leaving Congress 
in a body the Southern members gave to the Republicans 
complete control of the national legislature. The domi- 
nant party was divided into two groups, one supporting 
Lincoln and mildly opposed to slavery, and the other made 
up of devoted Unionists who were extreme antislavery 
people and who favored harsh treatment of the South after 
the war. The Democrats, like the Republicans, were 
divided into tv/o camps. Those were called "War Demo- 
crats " who opposed secession and showed their loyalty to 
the Union both at the polls and on the field of battle. 
These patriots, who did not greatly differ from moderate 
Republicans, rendered valuable service to the nation in 
thus putting their country above their party. Another 
group of Democrats, though professing devotion to the 
Union, criticized the management of the war and tried to 
undermine the national support of it. 

Personal Liberty. — The preservation of the Union was 
the principle which shaped all of President Lincoln's im- 
portant acts. What he deemed necessary for that end he 
did. He might, indeed, have followed in the footsteps of 
Buchanan and shown greater tenderness in dealing with the 
seceders. But when a conflict became inevitable, he acted 
promptly. Without waiting for the authority of Congress 
he called for troops, organized armies, and proclaimed a 
blockade of the South. 

Not in Maryland only, but in states far from the theater 
of war men were imprisoned on the charge of assisting the 
South. Persons who discouraged enlistments were liable 
to arrest. Thousands of such offenders were thrown into 
jails by Federal officials, and because of that fact Lincoln 
was denounced as a tyrant. If the President had not boon 



PERSONAL LIBERTY 397 

both prompt and energetic in dealing with those who 
opposed or defied the government, it is not hard to guess 
what would have happened. To him the question seemed 
to be, "Is the Union worth saving? " On that subject he 
behaved patriots could not differ. 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — What offer did President Lincoln make to 
the border states? Why did he make it? When Lincoln's offer of 
payment for slaves was rejected, what did he consider? Explain the 
division of Virginia. What was the Louisiana plan? Why was the 
Thirteenth Amendment necessary after the Emancipation Proclama- 
tion? 

Discuss the blockade of Southern ports. Describe the methods of 
running the blockade. Tell of the Trent incident. How were the 
Confederate cruisers equipped? Relate the history of the Alabama. 
What was the importance of our navy? Describe the contest be- 
tween the Merrimac and the Monitor. Who was Captain Ericsson ? 
What is said of our relations with Great Britain, France, and Russia? 

What was the Union plan for 1864? What did General Sherman 
do? Relate the facts of Grant's advance on Richmond. Who de- 
vastated the Shenandoah Valley and destroyed Early's army ? Who 
was elected President in 1864? Who won the battle of Five Forks? 
Whose army cut off the retreat of Lee ? Who accepted the surrender 
of Lee? 

Describe the surrender of the remaining Confederate armies. Tell 
the story of the capture of Jefferson Davis; of the assassination of 
Lincoln. Who then became President of the United States? 

About how many enlistments were there in the North ? What is 
said of the cost of the war? Describe conditions in the North and in 
the South, at the close of the war. Name the Southern military 
prisons. Give an account of political parties at the close of the 
conflict. 

References. — Charles H. McCarthy, Lincoln's Plan of Recon- 
struction; Rhodes, A History of the United States; Bulloch, The Con- 
federate Naval Service Abroad; Nicolay and Hay, Abraham Lincoln; 
A History. 



CHAPTER XXX 
ERA OF RECONSTRUCTION (1862-1877) 

Plans of Reconstruction. — The four years of destruction 
were to be followed by a long period of reconstruction. 
This was a dreary era for the South. The story of the 
restoration of the seceding states to their former places in 
the Union divides itself into two parts, namely, Presidential 
Reconstruction and Congressional Reconstruction. The for- 
mer extended from March, 1862, to December, 1865. Con- 
gressional Reconstruction covers the period between De- 
cember, 1865, and the spring of 1877, when President Hayes 
recalled from the South the last Federal troops. 

Presidential Reconstruction. — President Lincoln at- 
tempted to apply his system to Louisiana, Arkansas, and 
Tennessee, but the last was the only state reorganized under 
his influence, that was recognized by Congress.^ It was 
Lincoln's policy, too, that brought about the formation 
of West Virginia as a separate state. His acts greatly 
strengthened the arm of the nation, for in West Virginia, 
Tennessee, and Arkansas many loyal regiments were raised 
and mustered into service. Whatever the defects of his 
plan, it would have made Southern men the rulers of the 
South. 

Reconstruction under Johnson. — After Lincoln's death, 
President Johnson attempted to uphold the governments 
established by the loyal people of Louisiana, Arkansas, 
Tennessee, and Virginia. But what was he going to do 
about the remaining seven states? This he made known 

' The ten remaining states of the late Confederacy were restored at dif- 
ferent times, in 1868 and 1870, under the direction of Congress. 

398 



CONGRESSIONAL RECONSTRUCTION 399 

bj^ his appointment, May 29, 1865, of William VV. Holden 
as provisional governor of North Carolina. Johnson 
authorized a convention to be held. This repudiated the 
Confederate debt, declared null and void the ordinance of 
secession, and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment of the 
Constitution. Practically the same program was followed 
in the case of each of the remaining states. When the 
Thirty-ninth Congress convened in December, 1865, there 
were present in Washington, from nearly all the late seceding 
states. Senators and Representatives waiting to take their 
seats. Instead of admitting them, however. Congress 
appointed a Joint Committee on Reconstruction to inquire 
into affairs in the Southern States and learn whether any of 
them were so far restored to their former condition as to be 
entitled to representation in Congress. This was the end 
of Presidential Reconstruction. Congress took the whole 
matter out of the President's hands. 

Congressional Reconstruction. — Congress passed many 
bills concerning the South. These were vetoed by the 
President. Thus was begun between Andrew Johnson and 
Congress a quarrel which finall.y led, as we shall see, to 
Johnson's impeachment. In the elections of 1866 he trav- 
eled over the country denouncing the conduct of Congress. 

W^hen the Joint Committee made its report, it recom- 
mended the admission to Congress of the Senators and 
Representatives of Tennessee. That state was restored to 
its former relations on July 24, 1866. Before the admission 
of their Congressmen the remaining ten states were required 
to ratify not only the Thirteenth Amendment, as Tennessee 
had done, but also the Fourteenth Amendment, which made 
the freedmen citizens and made most of the Confederate 
leaders ineligible to office. Ten of the late Confederate 
states at first rejected this amendment, as did four that had 
supported the Union, but by July, 1868, it had been ratified 



400 ERA OF RECONSTRUCTION 

by three fourths of the states, thereby becoming a part of 
the Constitution. 

Impeachment of President Johnson. — In March, 1867, 
Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act, which deprived 
the President of the power to remove certain officials. He 
might, indeed, suspend them until the Senate inquired into 
the cause. If the Senate approved the suspension, the 
officer was removed; if not, he was reinstated. Johnson 
vetoed the measure, for it was opposed to the past practice 
in this country, but, like many other bills, it was at once 
passed over his objection and became a law. 

In August, 1867, Johnson disobeyed this law by asking 
the resignation of Edwin M. Stanton, Secretary of War, 
and, when that official, refused to resign, suspending him. 
The Senate disapproved and reinstated Stanton, but John- 
son removed him and in his place appointed another officer. 
For this act as well as for his attacks upon Congress, the 
President was impeached by the House and tried by the 
Senate, Chief Justice Chase presiding. However, in order 
to' convict, the Constitution requires the vote of two thirds 
of the Senators present. To make up the necessary two 
thirds, one vote was lacking. Thus narrowly did the Presi- 
dent escape conviction. 

Reconstruction Acts. — In February, 1867, Congress 
grouped the late Confederate states, except Tennessee, into 
five military districts, each of which was to be placed under 
the command of an officer not below the rank of brigadier 
general, who was to maintain order and protect property. 
In March another bill was passed, setting forth the require- 
ments for readmission to the Union. This directed in each 
state an enrollment of qualified voters, regardless of race or 
color; and if a majority of them favored the step, the call- 
ing of a convention to make a new constitution. Upon 
the acceptance of such a constitution by a majority of the 



MILITARY GOVERNMENT 401 

voters and its approval by Congress, Senators and Rep- 
resentatives from the state would be admitted to Congress, 
provided the legislature had ratified the Fourteenth Amend- 
ment. President Johnson promptly vetoed this bill, but 
Congress repassed it over his veto and made it a law. 

Military Government. — The military officers were ap- 
pointed and with sufficient forces went South to govern the 
people according to the principles of martial law. The 
orders of a general were given the force of law, and jury 
trials were replaced by hearings before military commissions. 
Under the recent acts of Congress many of the leading 
Southern whites were disfrancliised for having supported 
the war of secession. The colored citizens, on the other 
hand, were eager to exercise their new 
privilege of voting, and were soon in 
complete control of political affairs in the 
Southern States. 

Carpetbaggers and Negro Misrule. — 
In these conditions certain Northern men 
called "carpetbaggers," saw their oppor- 
tunity.^ Swarms of them went into the 
South, where for years with a few native 
whites, known as "scalawags," and the 

. . , A CARPETBAG 

assistance oi the negroes, they misgoverned 
and plundered that section. They formed the black men into 
clubs, instructed them in the art of voting, and used them 
to advance their own political fortunes. But the negroes 
grew weary of assisting their Northern friends, and as they 
furnished the votes, insisted on getting a share of the offices. 
Thus it happened that many who had recently been field 
hands were elected to important positions and several of 

* A common form of traveling bag was made of ciirpet. A " carpet- 
bagger " was a newcomer, supposed to own nothing but what he brought in 
his carpetbag. 




402 ERA OF RECONSTRUCTION 

the more intelligent were sent to Congress. In South Caro- 
hna it was estimated that there were 200 trial justices unable 
even to read. 

Ku-Klux Klan. — Under the forms of law the people of 
the South were utterly helpless to protect themselves against 
"carpetbaggers," "scalawags," and freedmen. Open op- 
position would have been useless, for in another cause they 
had appealed to the sword and had lost. Southern leaders, 
therefore, organized secret societies such as the " Knights 
of the White Camelia " popularly known as the Ku-Klux 
Klan. Its object was originally to frighten the negro into 
good behavior, but in a later stage to terrorize him and 
keep him from voting.^ 

' Ruling this "Invisible Empire" was a Grand Wizard. A Grand 
Dragon ruled over each state, and below him were Grand Titans, Grand 
Cyclopses, and Ghouls. Hair-raising tales of the power and cruelty of the 
Klan circulated among the negroes, so that when it became known that the 
spectral army was "riding," prudent blacks retired to their cabins, where 
their fears magnified small bauds into mighty armies. The sheeted men 
on horseback the negroes Ijclieved to be the spirits of the Confederate 
dead. 

Agents of the Freedmcn's Bureau (established in the War Department 
to feed the helpless ex-slaves, to educate them, and to ant as their guardian), 
prominent negro politicians, "carpetbaggers," "scalawags," and Northern 
teachers of negro schools were the chief objects of Southern hatred. Any of 
them was likely to receive a warning. The following notice found in Missis- 
sippi was placed on the doorpost of an agent of the Freedmen's Bureau. 

K.K. K. Dismal Swamp 

11th hour 
2D, XI 

Mene, mene, tekel, upharsin. The bloody dagger is drawn; the trying 
hour is at hand; beware! Your steps are marked; the eye of the dark chief 
is upon you. First he warns; then the avenging dagger flashes in the moon- 
light. 

By order of the Grand Cyclops; 

LIXTO 

The outrages of the Ku-Klux ranged from mysterious hints of violence to 
whipping and even murder. Only when the natural leaders of the South 
regained control of its government did this society cease its activity. 



GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION 403 

Election of 1868. — The Republican convention in 1868 
nominated General Ulysses S. Grant for President. The 
Democrats named as their standard bearer Horatio Sey- 
mour. The Republicans carried the election, but soon 
began to lose ground, chiefly because of their Southern 
policy. 

Before the war General Grant had been accustomed to 
act with the Democratic party, but during the years of 
strife he did not approve its policy, and after his controversy 
with Johnson he inclined toward Republican measures. 
His strength, which was undoubted, lay in his honesty and 
in his purpose to uphold the law. 

Fifteenth Amendment. — In February, 1869, Congress 
submitted to the states the Fifteenth Amendment, which 
provides that "The right of citizens of the United States 
to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States 
or by any state on account of race, color, or previous con- 
dition of servitude." Having been ratified by a sufficient 
number of states, this amendment, in March, 1870, went 
into force. It did not, indeed, expressly give the negroes 
the right to vote, but it was intended to do so by prevent- 
ing discrimination against them. 

Home Rule in the South. — Grant was the author of the 
sentiment, "Let us have peace," but when he assumed office, 
a tempest was gathering. The Ku-Klux outrages v/ere 
multiplying. Race collisions and election riots, fatal to 
scores, were frequent. In some states rival governments 
had been set up. The organization of negro militia com- 
panies further inflamed the minds of Southern whites. As 
the excitement due to war conditions cooled, the Washing- 
ton authorities were less and less inclined to send troops to 
interfere in Southern elections. There was growing up a 
feeling which favored the idea that the states of that section 
should take care of themselves. 



404 ERA OF RECONRT RUCTION 

Rise of Liberal Republicans. — The troubles following 
the attempt to rule the South convinced many Northerners 
that the government had gone too far. They demanded 
more liberal treatment for that section. Under the leader- 
ship of Carl Schurz and B. Gratz Brown many voters, 
especially in the West, left the Republican organization 
and formed the Liberal RepubHcan party .^ 

Case of the Virginius. — In 1868 the Cubans rebelled 
against Spain and in the course of the ten years' war that 
followed, American ships were seized, American citizens were 
arrested, and their property in the island destroyed or con- 
fiscated. Filibusters left American ports to assist the Cuban 
rebels. An offer of mediation by President Grant was de- 
clined by Spain. k 
In 1873 the Virginius, flying the American flag, was seized 
by Spain as a filibuster and fifty-three of 
her crew and passengers put to death. 
War was expected, but Spain released the 
ship and to the survivors and the families 
of the murdered men paid $80,000. 

Election of 1872. — In May, 1872, the 
Liberal Republican convention nominated 
Horace Greeley for President. In July the 
HORACE GREELEY Dcmocratlc convention named the same 
candidate. Thus did Horace Greeley, a 
lifelong foe of the Democratic party, become its champion. 
The Republican convention meanwhile met in Philadelphia 
and renominated President Grant. There were other tickets 
in the field, but they attracted little support. 

^ Originally inclined to be lenient toward the South, President Grant 
allowed himself to be influenced in favor of harshness. Those received 
favors from the President who were supported by Benjamin F. Butler, Simon 
Cameron, or Zachary Chandler, men in whom Grant reposed undue con- 
fidence. His attitude toward the civil service led to the resignation of 
George William Curtis, appointed to carry out the law of 1871, a measure 
upon which the President at first looked with favor. 




GRANT'S ADMliNlSTKATlON 405 

Because of his military services Grant had long before 
won the confidence of the people. To his mistakes they 
gave little thought. The Democratic nominee, who 
managed his own campaign, was able and honest though 
rather tactless. The Repubhcans devoted themselves 
mainly to ridiculing Greeley. Grant received 763,000 more 
votes than were cast for Greeley. In the electoral college 
he received 286 votes. As Greeley had died soon after 
election day, the Democratic electors voted for Thomas \. 
Hendricks and others. 

Corruption under Grant. — Blameless himself. Grant's 
ignorance of public men made it easy to deceive him. In- 
deed, he was not a successful man of business. Until he 
entered the Union army he had failed in several enter- 
prises. He had, it is true, served brilliantly in the war 
with Mexico. Only for a military career had he shown 
much promise. 

To build the Union Pacific Railroad there was formed a 
construction company known as the Credit Mobilier (cra- 
de' mo-bel-ya'). In the short space of one year each owner 
of a hundred-dollar share in this company received $60 in 
cash, first mortgage bonds worth $230, and railroad stock 
worth at its face value $515. These enormous profits 
aroused suspicion, and suspicion led to an investigation by 
Congress. Some of its members were owners of shares 
which had been sold to them on easy terms. Other scan- 
dals, showing the corruption of many public officers, also 
threatened the Republicans with defeat.^ 

1 A St. Louis supervisor of revenue was convicted and sent to the peniten- 
tiary for ten years. Belknap, Secretary of War, was accused of so managing 
the appointment of Indian Agent at Fort Sill that for not disturbing the 
incumbent Mrs. Belknap was during her life to receive $6000 a yew and upon 
her death that sum was to be paid to the Secretary; an applicant who desired 
the position withdrew for an additional payment of SfiOOO a year. It was plain 
that if the profits of the office justified an annual outlay of $12,000 to retain 



406 ERA OF RECONSTRUCTION 

The '* Salary Grab." — On March 3, 1873, when its 
labors were just endmg, Congress passed a law increasing 
the salaries of the President, the Vice President, and many 
other officials. To adequate salaries the people did not 
object, but there was indignation when it was known that 
Congressmen raised their own salaries from $5000 a year to 
$7500, and that the increase dated back two years. The 
law, so far as it related to Senators and Representatives, 
was repealed by the next Congress, and many years passed 
before Congress again raised the salary to ,$7500. 

Election of 1876. — In June, 1876, the Republican con- 
vention nominated Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, for 
President. Roscoe Conkling and other leaders of the party 
had attempted to gain a third nomination for General 
Grant, but in Congress the idea of a third term had already 
been condemned. The Democrats nominated Samuel J. 
Tilden, of New York, for President. By condemning the 
spoils system and expressing himself in favor of wiping out 
the distinction between North and South, Hayes appealed 
to the better element in his party. The election was very 
closely contested. 

Until after midnight of November 6th it was generally 
believed that Tilden was elected. It was soon known that 
he would receive 184 undisputed votes, while Hayes was 
equally sure of 165. From Louisiana, Florida, Oregon, and 
South Carolina, there came conflicting reports. If the Re- 
publican candidates could get all these votes, they would 
have 185 or a majority of 1, just enough to win the election. 

Congress created a special commission to decide the dis- 
puted returns. This body, composed of five Senators, five 
Representatives, and five Justices of the United States 

it, sonio of the Indian tribes had ground for complaint. Belknap wa> ini- 
poaohed, but the President permitted him to rcsifin, The Senate decided 
to t,r\- him, but did not convict him. 



FOREIGN RELATIONS 407 

Supreme Court, fifteen in all, was made up of eight' Re- 
publicans and seven Democrats. By the morning of 
March 2 all the disputed votes were counted for Hayes, 
who thus was declared elected. 

End of Reconstruction (1877). — Soon after his in- 
auguration President Hayes withdrew the Federal troops 
from the South, thus bringing to a close the work of recon- 
struction. Thereafter the South, which had been terribly 
punished for its secession, was free to manage its own 
affairs. 

Foreign Relations 

Purchase of Alaska. — In 1867 Alaska was purchased 
from Russia for the sum of $7,200,000, through a treaty 
negotiated by Secretary of State Seward. At the time it 
was looked upon as a foolish transaction; in fact, it was 
called "Seward's folly." President Johnson, however, 
was not less interested in acquiring the territory than was 
his Secretary of State. Time has proved the wisdom of the 
purchase, for the deposits of coal and gold are now known 
to be of great value. Alaska is also important for its furs, 
fish, and timber. 

The French Leave Mexico. — At the beginning of the 
war, Napoleon III, Emperor of France, sent an army into 
Mexico, overthrew the government, and set up an empire 
under Maximilian, Archduke of Austria. Being engaged 
in war, our government could only protest against this 
violation of the Monroe Doctrine. When the war was over, 
however, an army under General Sheridan was sent to the 
Rio Grande, and a demand was made upon France for the 
recall of her troops. As the United States had the largest 
body of trained soldiers and the strongest navy in the world, 
the Emperor of France did not hesitate. When the French 
soldiers were withdrawn, the Mexicans on June 19, 1867, 



408 ERA OF RECONSTRUCTION 

captured and shot the unfortunate Maximilian and restored 
the repubhc. 

Treaty of Washington; the Alabama Claims. — In 1871 
there was signed the treaty of Washington, by which the 
United States and Great Britain agreed to settle by arbi- 
tration a number of outstanding questions. The injury 
to American commerce by the cruisers Alabama, Florida, 
and others, bought or built in Great Britain, has been 
mentioned (page 380). In 1872 commissioners met at 
Geneva, Switzerland, and for such damage awarded the 
United States $15,500,000.1 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — How is the period of Reconstruction divided ? 
Discuss the restoration of the seceding states under Lincoln; under 
Johnson. What was the Joint Committee on Reconstruction? 
Give an account of the impeachment of President Johnson. De- 
scribe the Congressional system of Reconstruction. What happened 
under the carpetbaggers and negroes? Give an account of the Ku- 
Klux Klan. 

To what party did Grant belong before the war? Discuss con- 
ditions in the South. What led to the rise of the Liberal Republican 
party? What mistake did President Grant make? Describe the 
election of 1872 and state the result. Name some of the scandals 
of the period. Discuss the disputed presidential election of 1876. 
When did the era of Reconstruction end? 

What nation entered Mexico during the war and changed its 
government? How were the Alabama claims settled? 

References. — Chas. H. McCarthy, Lincoln's Plan of Reconstruc- 
tion; Dunning, Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction; Blaine, 
Twenty Years of Congress; Stanwood, A History of the Presidency; 
McKee, National Conventions and Platforms; Wilson, Division and 
Reunion. 

' One arbitrator was chosen from each of the following countries: Eng- 
land, the United States, Italy, Switzerland, and Brazil. 



CHAPTER XXXI 
GROWTH AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 

Much of what remains of the story of our RepubHc will 
be concerned with the economic development of the United 
States from 1860 to the present time. 

Discovery of Gold and Silver. — In 1858 gold was dis- 
covered near Pikes Peak on the eastern slope of the Rock>- 
Mountains. Gold hunters, eager as the Forty-niners in 
California, swarmed into the country and founded Denver. 
In 1861 Colorado, which included this favored region, was 
made a territory. In the same year Kansas, the early 
battle ground of the proslavery and antislavery forces, was 
admitted into the Union as a state.^ 

In 1859, silver was discovered on Mount Davidson in 
western Utah. Miners poured in and settled Virginia 
City. In 1864 this mining camp, with ample boundaries, 
was admitted as the state of Nevada. In 1863 Idaho, 
where the precious metals had been found a year earlier, 
was organized as a territory, and during the following year 
(1864) Montana, in which gold had been found, was also 
made a" territory. In 1867 Nebraska, from the northern 
part of which the territory of Dakota had been formed, was 
admitted as a state. Colorado, the '^ centennial state," was 
admitted in 1876. 

Transportation. — Before the war Fremont and his 
father-in-law, Senator Benton, had been considering the 
building of a railroad across the continent. Still earlier 
other men not so well known had considered the same proj- 

' Kansas was not admitted until after the Southern Congressmen had 
left Washington when their states seceded. 

409 



410 GROWTH AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 



ect. The horse, the stagecoach, and tlie piaiiie schooner 
were the principal means of transcontinental transportation. 




OVERLAND MAIL COACH 

The last-named conveyance was a long wagon covered 

with white canvas. 
The route, beginning 
in Kansas, followed 
the Platte River to 
the Rockies, and 
crossed the moun- 
tains over the South 
Pass ; thence the trail 
led to great Salt 
Lake and across the 
Sierra Nevada to Sacramento. From each end of this 
route a four-horse stagecoach started once a week.^ 

' On another route, through El Paso to the Pacific, the journey required 
twenty-seven days. Business men desired some swifter means of communi- 




PONY EXPRESS RIDER 



THE FAR WEST 411 

The Telegraph. — In June, 1800, Congress chartered the 
Pacihc Telegraph Company, which built a line across the 
continent. Construction was begun, about the same time, 
at San Francisco and Omaha, Nebraska. By October, 
18(31, the section commenced in California was completed 
as far as Salt Lake City, where it met the i)art l)(>ing Ijuilt 
toward the west. At that time the charge for a ten-word 
message from New York to Salt Lake City was $7.50. 
After this line was finished, the Pony Express went out of 
business. Thereafter all letters were sent by the overland 
stagecoaches, which carried not only mail but express matter 
and passengers. 

Transportation of Freight. — Compared with the present 
systems of transportation the methods of the decade from 
1860 to 1870 were rude. With heavy wagons, hauled by 
six or eight yoke of oxen, or by as many mule teams, the 
journey from Kansas to Colorado required five weeks. This 
so added to the cost of goods that in Virginia City, Nevada, 
the price of a gallon of oil was $10, while in Montana, flour 
sold for $85 a barrel. All this the railroad later changed. 

Railroads. — In 1862 Congress chartered two companies 
to build a railway from the Missouri River to California. 
The Union Pacific was pushed westward from Omaha, while 
the Central Pacific was extending eastward from California. 
The sections were joined in May, 1869, near Ogden, Utah. 
This put an end to the overland stagecoach. 

cation, and this demand led to the Pony Express, which in ten days carried 
letters from St. Joseph, Missouri, to San Francisco, a distance of 2000 miles. 
This miracle of speed was accomplished by relays of riders and of horses. 
Mounted on a swift pony an expert horseman galloped at top speed to the 
first relay station, where with his han of letters ho jumped on the back of a 
fresh pony and again dashed off for the second station. No time was lost 
in reaching the third. At that point another mounted rider took up the 
race, for it was a race against time and the record of others, and posted off 
to cover his three stages in a space shorter than ever before. Two or three 
times a week riders set out from each end of the route. 



412 GROWTH AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 

The business panic of 1873, whicii for a. time nearly 
snuffed out the industrial life of the nation, stopped railroad 
building. Gradually this period of depression passed away. 
It was soon found that to carry settlers to the new lands and 
bring back their produce more lines were needed; the con- 
struction of new roads was resumed, and by 1910 the total 
number of miles in this country was 237,000. The railroad 
systems now represent one seventh of the national wealth 
and give employment to more than a million and a half of 
men and women. 

Benefits of Railroad Building. — To assist in constructing 
the railroad to the Pacific, the government gave to the 
companies large grants of land and liberal sums of money. 
The land not needed for tracks and stations was sold to 
settlers. But the railroad did more than connect the people 
of the Middle West with the Pacific coast. It hastened the 
settlement of the great region between the Mississippi 
River and the Rocky Mountains.^ 

Interstate Commerce Act. — In 1887 Congress passed 
the Interstate Commerce Act and established a Commission 
of five persons to inquire into complaints concerning rail- 
roads and to enforce many regulations to secure fair service. 
This pointed to better methods, but to some extent the 
railroads evaded the law. Later, therefore, the Interstate 



1 The marvelous growth of the West may be suggested by the following 
table of populations: 



State 


1860 


1880 


1910 


Iowa 


675,000 


1,635,000 


2,225,000 


Minnesota 


172,000 


780,000 


2,075,000 


North Dakota ) 






577,000 


South Dakota f 


4,800 


135,000 


583,000 


Nebraska 


28,000 


452,000 


1,192,000 


Kansas 


107,000 


996,000 


] ,690,000 


California 


380,000 


864,000 


2,377,000 



■niK liOAlESTEAl) LAW 411^ 

Commerce Commission was given greater powers of control 
over railroad rates and railroad service. The membership 
of the Commission was increased to seven. 

The Homestead Law. — • In 1862 Congress passed the 
Homestead Law. Under its provisions a farm of 80 or of 
160 acres in the pubUc domain might be secured by any 
head of a family or any citizen of the age of twenty-one 
years, provided he or she would live on the land and culti- 
vate it for five years. Ro generous was this act that a 
person who had declared his or her intention to become a 
citizen of the United States was given its benefits. In a 
word, no able-bodied person need be landless. 

Settling the Prairie. — An attempt to raise wheat was 
made during 1876 in the valley of the Red River of the 
North. Its success attracted thousands of settlers to the 
territory of Dakota, to which many miners had gone still 
earlier. The newcomers broke up the prairie, sowed wheat, 
and raised cattle. At first they dwelt in dugouts, caves 
made in the face of a slope or a hill. The dugout, merely 
a hole in the ground, was roofed Avith sod. After living 
for one or two years in such a dwelling, the settlers built 
something better.^ 

Cattle Raising. — ■ When the immense herds of buffalo 
had disappeared, their places were taken by great herds of 
cattle tended by cowboys, and in a short time there grew 
up an immense business in cattle raising. Sometimes the 
animals grazed on public lands, sometimes on estates which 

' With the building of railroads and the coining of white men began the 
reckless slaughter of buffalo and the crowding of the Indian. To the Indian 
the struggle for a liveUhood became harder. Of the millions of "hump- 
backed cows" that once cropped the grass of the prairies it is said that in all 
the West there is left but one small herd. A few years ago the traveler 
could see in places the trails and the wallows of the buffalo, but the paths 
once trodden by myriads of these animals are becoming more and more 
difficult to trace. In both East and West, as everyone knows, a few of these 
animals may yet be seen in zoological gardens or public parks. 



414 



GROWTH AND ECONOMIC DEVELOrMENT 



though private were vast in extent. From Dakota to 
Arizona extended the grazing country, over which roamed 
the great herds of cattle, driven, pasturing on the way, to 
the railroads to be taken to market. In the development of 
the West the cowboy, picturesque in manner and appear- 
ance, played a useful part. But now most of the old cattle 
range has been divided into farms. 




KAIl.KOAD TKAIN PASSINCi A HERD OF BUFFALO, ABOUT 1S7(1 



The Indians. — Indian uprisings were closely con- 
nected with the wanton slaughter by white men of the 
great herds of buffalo. Not only have the buffaloes been 
swept from the prairies but from wide regions the Indians 
themselves have vanished. The student is not to conclude 
from this that the native races of America are soon to dis- 
appear. Millions of Indians are still to be seen in all the 
lands between the Rio Grande and Cape Horn. In the 
West Indies, indeed, they were not spared by the Spaniards, 
but the efforts of Las Casas saved them on the mainland. 
In our original states, however, few remained. 



WESTERN INDIANS 415 

Father De Smet, S.J. — In the limits of a school book 
there is not space even to suggest the nature of CathoHc 
missionary work. During the year 1850 Father De Smet, 
S.J., with two associates founded the mission of St. Mary 
in the Bitter Root Reservation, and that of St. Ignatius 
on the Jocko Reservation, in what is now the state of Mon- 
tana. Twenty years of toil were marked by failure, but 
that spiritual hero was not discouraged. A different system 
was tried with almost perfect success. Under the Jesuits 
the Indian, separated from the members of his tribe, soon 
became a Christian as well as an industrious workman. 
Because of the sacrifices of Father De Smet and his asso- 
ciates the traveler may behold in the Flathead Reservation, 
Montana, herds of cattle and horses, confortable homes, 
and industrious Indians. 

Indian Discontent. — Though the United States govern- 
ment had set apart for the sole use of the tribes many fine 
tracts of land, greedy white men often entered the reserva- 
tions and shamefully disregarded the rights of the Indians. 
Dishonest agents, too, failed to deliver to the tribes all the 
supplies intended for them by Congress. As we have seen, 
other white men were engaged in the wanton slaughter of 
buffaloes. This treatment finally led the Indians to murder 
settlers and run off their horses and cattle. In 1862 the 
Sioux, in Minnesota, gave much trouble, and a few years 
later (1866) were restless in Montana. General Crook, 
in 1872, conducted a campaign against the Apaches, of 
Arizona.^ 

' About the same time (1872) the Modocs under their chief, Captain 
Jack, refused to remain on their reservation, and when General Canby wa3 
sent against them retreated to the Lava Beds in northern California. There 
they resisted the United States troops, many of whom were picked off by 
Indian sharpshooters hidden behind rocks and bushes. An effort was made 
to talk to them. While General Canby and two commissioners, all un- 
armed, were trying to arrange terms of peace with the chief and his followers. 



416 GROWTH AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 



The Custer Massacre. — Still more serious was the war 
against the Sioux in the summer of 1876, when Sitting Bull, 
Crazy Horse, and other leaders refused to enter a reserva- 
tion selected for them. The government resolved to use 
force and sent a body of troops against them. In June, 
Lieutenant Colonel Custer with 600 men pursued Sitting 
Bull into the valley of the Little Big Horn River in Mon- 
tana. There he made 
the fatal mistake of di- 
viding his force, which 
was already small. With 
a diminished band, 262 
men, Custer came sud- 
denly upon an army of 
2500 warriors. These 
stampeded his horses, 
which ran off with the 
ammunition bags. Al- 
though outnumbered 
ten to one, the little 
band of regulars fought 
bravely, but in twenty- 
five minutes not one of 
them was left alive. 
The South after Reconstruction. — War had interrupted 
the agriculture of the South, destroyed its commerce, and 
swept away its industrial system. Speedy recovery was 
prevented, as we have seen, by the "carpetbag " and negro 
governments. It should be remembered, however, that 
many Northerners who went South settled in that section 
for the purpose of developing its wonderful resources. But 

Indians rushed treacherously upon the party and shot Canby and one of the 
commissioners. In the summer of 1873 the hostile band was captured, when 
Captain Jack with three other leaders were tried, convicted, and hanged. 




SITTING BULL 



MECHANICAL PROGRESS 417 

as they associated with Yankee officials and sympathized 
with negroes they were not welcomed, and for this reason 
their plans generally failed. Nevertheless, in time Northern 
capital built cotton mills, which were largely operated by 
the "poor whites " of the South. In these factories great 
numbers of children, neglected by the laws, found em- 
ployment. As early as 1880 the factories of this section 
produced about one fourth as much as New England. 
Their growth was rapid, and by 1915 they were manufactur- 
ing more than half of the cotton grown in the United States. 

Mechanical Progress. — The period between 1860 and 
1880 was remarkable for the number and value of its in- 
ventions. In the field of electricity ingenious men have 
accomplished wonders. The Bell telephone, Edison's elec- 
tric light, the searchlight, and the electric motor, have 
made themselves indispensable. To the same epoch be- 
longs the invention of the compressed-air drill, the Westing- 
house air brake, the steam shovel, and the steam derrick. 
Barbed wire came into extensive use for fencing. The type- 
writer has not only enabled awkward folk to write legibly but 
has made it possible for anyone to do more work than can 
be done by even an expert penman. In those years there 
were many engineering feats of note, one of the most useful 
being that of James B. Eads, who built, at the mouth of the 
Mississippi, jetties which, hy increasing the velocity of the 
current, forced the great river to clean out its own channel. 
Later came the building, over the East River, of a great 
suspension bridge from Brooklyn to New York. 

Every decade since 1880 has also been marked by im- 
portant inventions. Countless improvements were made in 
the telephone, the telegraph, and all kinds of machinery. 
Wireless telegraphy was made a success by William Mar- 
coni, an Italian, about 1895; Init other scientists and in- 
ventors developed the theory and improved the apparatus. 



418 GROWTH AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 

The increasing use of electricity for lighting and the trans- 
mission of power was one of the most notable features of 
this period. Trolley cars were developed about 1890, and 
within twenty-five years electric power was used also for driv- 
ing many railroad trains, as well as for driving machinery of 
many kinds. For the production of the electricity dynamos 
could be operated either by steam power or by water power; 
and scores of great dams were built for this purpose, of which 
the longest was the dam across the INlississippi River at 
Keokuk, Iowa. The Niagara Falls have long yielded an 
immense amount of power. 

Automobiles and Airplanes. — In this most recent period, 
also, was developed the internal-combustion or gas engine, 
far lighter than^the steam engine in proportion to the power 
produced. This not only led to the remarkable growth of 
the automobile industry in our country, but also made pos- 
sible the airplane, an American invention. Important 
experiments were made by Professor J. J. Montgomery of 
California, Professor S. P. Langley, and others; but the first 
successful airplane was made by the Wright brothers of 
Dayton, Ohio, and patented in 1906. Improved by scores 
of inventors, many thousands of airplanes were used for 
various purposes in the Great War of 1914-1918. The 
airplane mail service in this country was begun in 1918. 
The first airplane to fly across the Atlantic was an American- 
built naval machine, which flew from Newfoundland to the 
Azores May 18-19, 1919, and later proceeded to Portugal 
and England. 

Industrial Development. — It was soon after the Civil 
War that many useful articles began to be manufactured 
on a large scale. Instead of making by patient toil an 
occasional pair of boots, as shoemakers used to do, boots 
and shoes were turned out in great factories, by cases and 
hundreds of cases. This increase was made possible by 



IMMIGRATION 



419 



the use of improved machinery and a large supply ot 
labor. Not only boots and shoes but hats and all articles 
of clothing were made in factories. Planing mills, with 
their improved machinery, turned whole forests into 
shingles, sashes, flooring, doors, and other materials foi' 
building. Rugs and carpets were no longer made by hand 
looms but by power looms. We have seen that the har- 
vester, the reaper, and other agricultural machinery made 
possible the raising of immense quantities of grain. With- 
out such machinery Minneapolis would be without its great 
flour mills. Other large-scale products of that period were 
iron, steel, oil, ships, and locomotives. 



1.300,000 

1,200,000 
1,100,000 
1,000,000 

1 000,000 

2 

S 800,000 
g 700,000 
o 600,000 
^ 500 000 




















1 


















1 























/ 






















1 


















|J 


^ 




















^ 




















A 






















A 


1 






3 400,000 

iz; 

300,000 
200,000 
100,000 








fi 






A i 




, 


/ 










/ 


-J 




/ 


M 




\ 












/ 


(\ 


/ 


\, 




^ 










./ 


\j 


(/ 


V 












y-VV 


'V 
















r 


I I 


3 C 

5 S 




? 

5 


Cf 


C 




5 g 




i 1 


I \ 


g 

> 


1 



NUMBER OF IMMIGRANTS ARRIVING IN THE UNITED STATES EACH YEAR 

Immigration. — Even vvdth the invention of labor-saving 
machinery the modern industrial growth would have been 
impossible without an abundance of labor. Skilled work- 
men, it is true, were not lacking in the United States, but 
unskilled workmen also were needed. This want was sup- 
plied by a stream of immigrants, as it has been in the whole 



420 GROWTH AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 

history of the country. Immigration was more or less 
constant till 1820, when the number of yearly arrivals 
exceeded 10,000. During the thirty years following there 
was a steady increase. The ijrosperity of this country led 
Europeans to think of coming hither, while the improve- 
ment in ocean transportation stripped the voyage of most 
of its terrors and its dangers. Though the crews, and occa- 
sionally the officers of immigrant ships, were often rough 
and sometimes brutal, this disadvantage was but a passing 
experience. 

Coming of the Irish. — In the situation described, when 
America was prosperous and transportation better than 
ever before, Ireland was disturbed by the insurrection of 
1848. This was followed by much political unrest. More- 
over, there had been famine in all the land. Both causes 
brought to the United States many hundred thousand Irish, 
mostly Catholics in religion. The beginnings of Irish im- 
migration are often fixed at 1840, but large numbers of Irish 
had settled in the English colonies before the Revolutionary 
War. While a majority of them were Presbyterians from 
Ulster, many Catholics had come from that as well as other 
provinces. In the decade beginning in 1830 the number of 
Irish immigrants was 781,000, while in that from 1840 to 
1850 it rose to 914,000. Under American conditions multi- 
tudes prospered. 

German Immigration. — Long before the Revolution, 
Germans had colonized whole counties in Pennsylvania 
and in large numbers had settled New York. This tide of 
immigration ceased and many years passed before it began 
again. Among the German immigrants who came after 
the revolutions of 1848 some were Catholics and some were 
Protestants. The Germans did not take so active a part in 
politics or in party management as the Irish, and moreover 
great numbers of them settled in the West, where they 



NEW STATES 421 

bought farms and before long were prosperous and influen- 
tial citizens. 

Recent Immigration. — -During the Civil War immigra- 
tion almost ceased; but after the war it was larger than 
ever. By 1880 immigrants were arriving at the rate of 
750,000 a year, and by 1905 the annual number passed the 
milHon mark. During those years there came great num- 
bers of Scandinavians, who settled principally in the North- 
west. After 1890 the number of immigrants from southern 
and eastern Europe rapidly increased. These included Ital- 
ians, Russian Jews and Russian Gentiles, Poles, Hungarians, 
Bohemians, and others. 

New States. — Growth in population, with the aid of 
railroads, led to the rapid settling of the remaining terri- 
tories. In 1889, North and South Dakota, Montana, and 
"Washington were admitted as states; Idaho and Wyoming 
in 1890; and Utah, the forty-fifth state, in 1896. These 
states were followed within a few years by the admission of 
Oklahoma (1907) and New Mexico and Arizona (1912), thus 
completing the forty-eight. 

Census of 1910. — The population of the country in 1910, 
exclusive of outlying possessions, was nearly 92,000,000. 

Catholic Population. — As we have seen, about 70,000 
Catholics were to be found in the United States toward the 
close of Archbishop Carroll's career. In 1918, a little more 
than one hundred years later, Its Catholic population had 
increased to 17,416,303, a number of persons far greater than 
in the beginning of the nineteenth century obeyed many of 
the rulers of Europe. The Catholic Church In this country' 
had not only grown in membership, but Its organization 
had developed wonderfully. The spiritual needs of its 
millions were the immediate care of 20,477 clergymen con- 
nected with 15.817 places of worship. There were in 1918 
ninety-three bishops and thirteen archbishops, of whom 



422 GROWTH AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 

three were cardinals/ his Eminence, James Cardinal Gib- 
bons, Archibishop of Baltimore, his Eminence, John Cardinal 
Farley, Archbishop of New York, and liis Eminence, William 
Cardinal O'Connell, Aixhbishop of Boston. 

Catholic Education. — Altogether, American Catholics sup- 
port more than 200 colleges for boys, while the nmnl>er 
of academies for girls is over three times as great. Many 
orders of priests, the Jesuits, the Congregation of Holy 
Cross, the Paulists, the Marists, and other societies main- 
tain colleges which offer splendid courses of instruction. 
For generations {he Christian Brothers, of whom many are 
able educators, have been graduating young men trained in 
religion and well fitted for the duties of citizenship. Various 
communities of nuns likewise conduct excellent colleges. 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — Describe the systems of transportation be- 
fore the war; also the Pacific Telegraph Company. What is said of 
the benefits of railroad building? Explain the Homestead Law. 
Account for the Indian uprisings. Who was Father De Smet, S.J. ? 
Tell the story of the Custer massacre. Describe the South after Re- 
construction. Illustrate the mechanical progress between 1860 and 
1880. Between 1880 and the present. What kept up the supply 
of labor in those periods? After 1880 what countries supplied im- 
migrants? How many states were there in the Union in 1896? 
Describe the growth of the Catholic Church. 

References. — Garner and Lodge, The United States (History of 
the Nations), Vol. II; Carl Russell Fish, Development of American 
Nationality and American Diplomacy; Blaine, Twenty Years of Con- 
gress; Harry Thurston Peck, Twenty Years cf the Republic. 

^ Official Catholic Directory of Messrs. Kennedy and Sons. 



CHAPTER XXXII 

INDUSTRIAL AND OTHER DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 
(1873-1897) 

The Panic of 1873. — The eight years following th(> close 
of the war formed a period of unusual prosperity. Since 
1869 some 24,000 miles of railroad had been constructed. 
As long as the railroad companies could sell their l)ontls, all 
went well. But in 1871 the city of (Jhicago was almost 
destroyed by fire and in the following year (1872) Boston 
suffered severely from the same cause. To rebuild the 
burned sections of l)oth cities much money was needed. 
Under these conditions the railroad companies were unable 
to sell their bonds, and with the failure of Jay Cooke and 
Company, of Philadelphia, bankers supporting the Northern 
Pacific Railroad, a panic began. Not only bankers but 
many mill owners and business men in other lines went into 
bankruptcy. Factories reduced wages or closed their 
doors. Many able-bodied men traveled the country in a 
vain search for employment. "Tramps," begging for food 
or clothing as they traversed the highways, for the first 
time were seen in great numbers. 

The Centennial Exposition. — The year 1876 brought 
round the one hundredth anniversary of American inde- 
pendence. To commemorate the close of the first centurj^ 
in the life of the nation an exposition was held in the city of 
Philadelphia. First planned as a great fair for the display 
of the products of American industries and arts, an invita- 
tion to participate was later sent to foreign nations, more 
than thirty of which took part. The display of manu- 
factures opened to tens of thousands of Americans new 

423 



424 INDUSTRIAL AND OTHER DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 

possibilities in industries and arts. It likewise strengthened 
national feeling and good will. Memorial Hall and Horti- 
cultural Hall, two of the large exhibition buildings, still 
stand in Philadelphia. 

Strikes of 1877. — In the summer of 1877 there occurred 
among the employees of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad a 
strike which soon spread to other systems and brought 
about a condition of industrial paralysis. Traffic was 
stopped and in the Pittsburgh riots property to the value 
of millions of dollars was destroyed and some lives were 
lost. 

Specie Payment Act. — During the war and for a long 
time afterward, a five-dollar bill was not equal in value to a 
five-dollar gold piece. To make them of equal value Con- 
gress decided to resume specie payment; that is, to redeem 
the bills in coin. The fractional currency, of the denomi- 
nations of 5, 10, 15, 25, and 50 cents, was first called in by 
the treasury and exchanged for 10, 25, and 50-cent silver 
coins. After January 1, 1879, all greenbacks were to be 
redeemed in specie. As John Sherman, Secretary of the 
Treasury, made the necessary preparations, gold and paper 
were of the same value before January 1, 1879, and when 
this fact became known, most people did not take the 
trouble to exchange their paper bills for gold or silver. 

In 1873 Congress stopped the coinage of silver dollars. 
Five years latter it passed, over the veto of President 
Hayes, the Bland-Allison Act, which required the Secretary 
of the Treasury to buy each month and coin into silver 
dollars, silver bullion to the value of not less than $2,000,000 
nor more than $4,000,000. In twelve years nearly 370,000,- 
000 silver dollars were coined. Then the Sherman act was 
passed, calling for the purchase of more silver; but in 1893 
the purchase of silver was stopped. All our money has 
been kept equal to gold in value. 



HAYES'S ADM IN IS'I RATION 



425 



Chinese Immigration Restricted. — After the discovery 
of gold in California, Chinese began to settle in that region. 
By the seventies they were becoming numerous. Preju- 
dice against them was strong, not only because of their 
strange manners and customs, but because their standard 
of living enabled them to work for lower wages than a white 
man would accept. The movement against the Chinese, 
begun in San Francisco by workingmen, was in time so 
strong for Chinese exclusion that in 1879 Congress passed a 
bill restricting the immigration of that race. Because it 
violated an existing treaty with China, 
President Hayes vetoed the measure. 
However, in 1880 he framed a new 
treaty, which was acceptable to China 
and still left Congress free to regulate 
the immigration of Chinese laborers. 
By a law passed in 1881 they have been 
to a considerable extent prevented from 
coming to this country. 

Election of i88o. — In June, 1880, 
a Republican convention nominated 
James A. Garfield, of Ohio, for President 
and Chester A. Arthur, of New York, 
for Vice President. Later in the same month the Demo- 
cratic convention selected for its standard bearers General 
Winfield S. Hancock, of Pennsylvania, and William H. 
English, of Indiana. Though General Hancock had a 
splendid military record in the Civil War, the Republicans 
won the election, chiefly on the issue that a protective tariff 
would make the country more prosperous than a tariff for 
revenue.^ 




JAMES A. GARFIELD 



• The popular vote cast for Hancock was nearly as great as that received 
by Garfield, but the former received only 155 electoral votes as against 214 
for the latter. 



426 INDUSTRIAL AND" OTHER DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 

Assassination of Garfield. — -The inauguiation of CJ^r- 
field and Arthur took place on March 4, 1881. Four months 
later, July 2, 1881, while offering payment for railroad 
tickets at a station in Washington, President Garfield was 
shot in the back by a disappointed office seeker. For a 
time the President was kept at the White House, but in 
the course of the summer he was removed to Elberon, New 
Jersey, where on the 19th of September he died of his 
wound. The surgical skill of that day could not locate the 
assassin's bullet. 

General Arthur, the Vice President, took the oath of 
office as President, and filled out the unexpired term of 
General Garfield. During this administration several im- 
portant laws were passed. 

Punishment for Polygamy. — In their first platform 
(1856) th(; Republicans had declared it to be the duty of 
Congress "to prohibit in the territories those twin relics of 
barbarism, polygamy and slavery." We have seen how 
slavery was abolished, but polygamy still flourished among 
the Mormons in Utah. In 1882 and again in 1887 Con- 
gress enacted legislation, some of which provided heavy 
penalties for polygamy. The practice, if not destroyed, 
is expected soon to disappear. 

Civil Service. — George H. Pendleton, an able Demo- 
cratic Senator from Ohio, introduced into Congress a bill 
which aimed at conferring office on the ground of fitness 
and not because of party service. This law of 1883 pro- 
vided for the creation of a Civil Service Commission with 
authority to direct the examination of candidates for ap- 
pointment. The average of efficiency among clerks has 
greatly risen since the passage of the law; but even yet the 
system is not perfect.^ 

» As early as 1S71 there had been an attempt to reform the civil service, 
but it did not receive sufficient support. 



ARTHUR; CLEVELAND 427 

Presidential Succession Act. — At the time of President 
Garfield's death, in September, 1881, Congress was not in 
session. If Vice President Arthur had died before the Presi- 
dent, the United States would have been without a Chief 
Executive. To provide for such an emergency Congress 
passed (1886) the Presidential Succession Act. This pro- 
vides that in case of vacancies in the office of both President 
and Vice President, the Secretary of State becomes Presi- 
dent; or if there be no Secretary of State, then the Secre- 
tary of the Treasury; or if none, the Secretary of War, 
and so on with other members of the Cabinet. In a word, 
they succeed in the order in which their departments were 
created. 

The Navy. — In the Garfield-Arthur administration 
Secretary Hunt discovered that after the Civil War the 
navy had been grossly neglected. It was then (1881) de- 
cided to begin the construction of a 
new navy. The Atlanta, the Boston, 
and the Chicago were soon afloat. 
Later under both Democratic and 
Republican administrations the navy 
continued to grow until it has become 
one of the great navies of the world. 

President Cleveland. — In 1884 
the Republican party nominated 
James G. Blaine, of Maine, for Pres- 
ident. The Democrats nominated 
Grover Cleveland, of New York. gkover Cleveland 
Nominations were made also by the Greenback party and 
the Prohibition party. Cleveland received 219 electora'* 
votes to 182 for Blaine. He was inaugurated March 4, 
1885. Twenty-four years had passed since a Democratic 
President had held that office. Though the Democrats 
controlled the House of Representatives during President 




428 INDUSTRIAL AND OTHER DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 



Cleveland's term, by a slight majority the Senate con- 
tinued Republican. As both parties favored the legislation 
demanded by labor, three important laws were passed: (1) 
An act of 1885 forbade any person or company to bring 
aliens into the United States under contract to perform 
labor or service; the object of this law was to protect Ameri- 
can laborers and not force them to compete with cheap 
contract labor. (2) There was created an Interstate Com- 
merce Commission 
(page 412). (3) A 
Bureau in charge of a 
Commissioner of Labor 
was established for the 
purpose of diffusing 
among the people of the 
United States useful in- 
formation on labor and 
on related subjects. 
This official has also 
done much to prevent 
strikes by adjusting 
disputes between em- 
ployers and employees. 
Statue of Liberty. — 
In October, 1886, there 
was unveiled on 
Bedloe's Island, New 
York harbor, a statue of "Liberty Enlightening the 
World." It was designed by M. Bartholdi and paid 
for by the contributions of 100,000 citizens of France, 
a country which had recently regained a republican form of 
government. The pedestal was built with money raised in 
the United States. This statue renewed the ancient feeling 
of gratitude to France, the oldest friend of our Republic. 




"■SS 



STATUE OF LIBERTY 



HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION 429 

Election of 1888. - In (iic suuinier of 1888 the Demo- 
crats renominated Grover Cleveland for President. The 
Republicans named Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana, a 
grandson of President Wilham Henry Harrison. The 
Democrats called for a tariff for revenue only; that is, 
a tariff that would raise enough money to meet the ex- 
penses of government economically conducted. The Re- 
publicans favored a tariff for protection and elected their 
candidates. 

Republicans Avoid a Sectional Issue. — When the Re- 
publicans gained control of the government, they unseated, 
on the ground that the negroes of the South had been 
prevented from voting, a large number of Democratic 
members and gave their places to Republican Representa- 
tives. Permanently to improve conditions in that section 
Senator Lodge, of Massachusetts, framed a Force Bill, which 
failed to pass. After 1890 there was no attempt by Con- 
gress to interfere with elections in the Southern States. 

The Treasury Surplus. — The $150,000,000 surplus in 
the Treasury, which had confronted President Cleveland 
when he first entered office, was soon dispersed by the de- 
mands of recent pension legislation, the appropriations for 
the Navy, and the refunding to the states of about twenty 
millions, which during the Civil War had been laid on them 
as a direct tax. 

The McKinley Tariff. — Perhaps the most important 
measure of Harrison's administration was the passage in 
1890 of the McKinley tariff bill. By it the duty was 
greatly increased on imported articles which competed with 
those of American manufacture, while that on raw materials 
was taken off. As this would affect the interests of sugar 
growers, for compensation they were given a bounty. This 
measure somewhat diminished the public revenue, and, the 
Democrats insisted, favored the growth of trusts. That 



430 INDUSTRIAL AND OTHER DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 

party, therefore, would undermine the trusts by a low tariff. 
The RepubHcans, on the other hand, attempted to reach 
the same end by the passage of restraining laws. 

The Sherman Anti-Trust Law. — The need had long been 
felt of a law to restrain great combinations of capital which 
destroyed competition and forced the small scale business 
man out of trade. For a dozen years there had been much 
protest against such conduct, and many states had passed 
laws on this subject when Senator John Sherman intro- 
duced into Congress a measure which, after many changes, 
was passed in 1890. This law gave to the courts, in the 
cases coming before them, the power to declare void any 
contract in restraint of trade and thus injurious to the 
public. For reasons not at all clear this measure was al- 
lowed during many years to sleep unapplied. 

Foreign Relations. — During the single term of President 
Harrison there were one or two diplomatic incidents of 
interest, but both were amicably adjusted. There was 
said to have existed in New Orleans an Italian secret society 
known as the " Maffia." The local chief of police, because 
of his activity against its members, was murdered. Eleven 
of them were tried for the crime. Though there appears to 
have been little doubt of their guilt, the jury failed or feared 
to convict them. Upon this an angry crowd broke into 
the jail, seized the prisoners, and put them to death. Three 
of the slain were subjects of the king of Italy, who demanded 
redress for the outrage. Mr, Blaine, our Secretary of State, 
denied that the United States was responsible, but in the 
end we paid an indemnity of $25,000. 

In the autumn of 1891 the people of Chile were in the 
midst of a civil war. For some reason the insurgents 
believed that Mr. Patrick Egan, the American minister, 
sympathized with their foes. This begot a feeling of hos- 
tility against him personally and against all Americans. 



CLEVELAND'S SECOND TERM 431 

When the men of the cruiser Baltimore went on shore at 
Valparaiso, they were set upon by the populace and fled 
for their lives. In this unprovoked attack two of the crew 
were killed and many injured. When our government 
demanded redress, Chile paid $75,000. 

Cleveland's Second Term. — In 1892 the Repubhcans 
renominated Harrison. For the third time the Democrats 
selected Grover Cleveland for their standard bearer. The 
People's Party nominated James B, Weaver, of Iowa. The 
cost of the government under the Republicans subjected 
them to much criticism.^ When the result was known, it 
was found that Cleveland received 277 electoral votes to 
145 for Harrison and 22 for Weaver. The Democrats also 
gained control of both branches of Congress.^ 

When Cleveland was inaugurated, the country was suffer- 
ing from great business depression. This led the President 
to convoke Congress in special session. That body 
stopped the purchase of silver (page 424). But the panic 
did not at once cease. In this condition Congress, con- 
trolled by the Democrats, assembled in December, 1893. 

1 In 1890 Congress passed what was popularly known as the Dependent 
Pension Bill. By its provisions all honorably discharged soldiers and sailors 
who served in the Civil War for ninety days or more, and suffered from dis- 
ability when they applied for pensions, were to be paid a monthly sum of not 
less than $6 and not more than $12. Under the act of 1802, to be entitled 
to pension one must have received a wound or injury in the service and in 
line of duty, or have contracted disease in the service. After the passage of 
the new law the payment for pensions amounted at one time to $16.5,000,000 
a year. 

* Many Americans of middle age remember to have seen beside the 
ballot box a superintendent of some shipyard, factory, or mine, who watched 
his employees approach a polling place and as they came up offered 
each a ticket. If the laborer in his employ put that ballot into the box, the 
fact would be remembered to his advantage. If, however, he took a folded 
ticket from his pocket and offered that to the election officers, his act would 
not be forgotten. To protect the voter, therefore, the secret or Australian 
ballot was introduced in 1888 and, beginning with Ma.ssachusetts, soon won 
its way among the states. 



432 INDUSTRIAL AND OTHER DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 

The Income Tax Law. — To revise the tariff, Congress 
passed the Wilson Bill. As the new measure might not 
yield enough money to defray government expenses, a 
section of the law provided for a tax of two per cent 
on all yearly incomes of $4000 and upwards. Citizens 
refused to pay the tax and took the matter into the United 
States Supreme Court, which, in 1895, decided that the law 
was unconstitutional. 

Bering Sea Plspute. — There had long existed between 
the United States and Great Britain a disagreement over the 
question of the ownership of seals in Bering Sea. An 
arbitration court, which met in Paris (1893), decided against 
the United States, but measures were taken to prevent 
the extermination of those valuable animals. 

Samoa and Hawaii. — For some time brave American 
whalers had kept the stars and stripes flying in the Pacific. 
With the acquisition by the United States of the Southwest, 
of Oregon, and of Alaska, Yankee ships were often seen, and 
there grew up with China and Japan a valuable trade. In 
1878 our government offered its friendship to the rulers of 
the Samoan Islands. During the first term of President 
Cleveland they got into trouble with Great Britain and 
Germany. By an arrangement agreed to in Berlin, the 
United States joined those great powers in recognizing 
the independence of Samoa (1889-1900) . 

After 1842 the Hawaiian Islands had been regarded as 
coming under the protection of the Monroe Doctrine. In 
1892 a revolution there led to the establishment of a repub- 
lic, which applied for annexation to the United States. A 
treaty providing for such a step was favored by President 
Harrison, but was withdrawn by his successor, who sought to 
restore Liliuokalani, the deposed queen of the islands. The 
people, however, resisted and in 1894 established a republic, 
which President Cleveland recognized. 



MCKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 



433 



Election of 1896. — In 1896, a convention of the Republi- 
can party selected as its candidate for President, William 
McKinley, of Ohio. The Democratic convention nomi- 
nated William J. Bryan, of 
Nebraska. To the financial 
plank in its platform there was 
much opposition. That de- 
manded "the free and unlimited 
coinage of^both silver and gold 
at the present legal ratio of 16 
. to 1, without waiting tor the 
aid or consent of any other 
nation."^ Against this part of 
the platform 301 delegates 
voted, thus foreshadowing a 
split in the Democratic party .^ 
After an exciting campaign, in which nearly 14,000,000 
citizens voted, McKinley was elected. 

The Dingley Tariff. — In July, 1897, the Republicans, 
in fulfillment of their promise to revise the tariff, passed 
the Dingley Act, which was approved by President 
McKinley. 




O ' 
WILLIAM Mckinley 



Questions and References 

Review Questions. — State some of the causes and the results of 
the panic of 1873. What was the Centennial Exposition? What 
was the specie payment act ? What is the American attitude toward 

1 Our country has always had free coinage of gold; that is, anybody can 
take gold to the mint and exchange it for the same amount of coin. The 
free coinage of silver was stopped in 1873, at a time when that metal was 
more than one-sixteenth as valuable as gold. In 1896 it was less than one- 
thirtieth as valuable as gold. 

2 In September a convention of the "National Democratic" party nomi- 
nated John M. Palmer, of Illinois. On the other hand, the People's Party 
and the "Silver Party" had nominated Brj'an. There were also Prohibition, 
Socialist-Labor, and other tickets. 



434 INDUSTRIAL AND OTHER DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 

the Chinese? Give an account of the Presidential election ol 1880. 
Describe the assassination of President Garfield and state the results. 
What is the Civil Service law of 1883 ? The Presidential Succession 
Act? 

Who was chosen President in 1884? Name some important laws 
passed during his first term. What event renewed the memory of the 
friendship of France? When was General Harrison elected? Name 
some events of Harrison's administration. What is the object of 
the Australian ballot ? What was the result of the split in the Demo- 
cratic party in 1896? Tell about the revolution in Hawaii. 

References. — Wilson, Division and Reunion (Epochs of American 
History) ; The United States, Article in The Catholic Encyclopedia by 
C. H. McCarthy; James G. Blaine, Twenty Years of Congress; Harry 
Thurston Peck, Twenty Years of the Republic. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 

THE WAR WITH SPAIN AND LATER EVENTS 
(1898 1912) 

Discontent in Cuba. — So unwisely was Cuba ruled by 
Spain that there was great unrest in the island, and frequent 
rebellion. Our country was interested in Cuba because of 
its situation jast off our shores, and later because our 
people had uivested their money in its mines, railroads, and 
plantations Moreover, there were in the United States 
many citizens of Cuban birth, who, with their American 
sympathizers, fitted out in our ports military expeditions 
to assist in freeing Cuba. 

In 1895 there broke out a new rebeUion which, Spain 
claimed, would soon die out if it were deprived of American 
support. What our country chiefly objected to was the 
harsh system adopted b}^ Spanish officials in order to sup- 
press the outbreak.^ 

Causes of "War, — In 1898 there was published in the 
United States a letter in which the Spanish minister men- 
tioned President McKinley in a manner not compliment- 
ary. This and other incidents were straining the relations 
between the two countries, when the battleship Maine was 
sent to the harbor of Havana. While her visit appeared 
to be friendly, for Americans were at that moment sending 

' Against the reconcentrado policy of General Weyler there was indignant 
protest That commander assembled in large camps many people from the 
surroundmg country The lands from which they had been removed were 
wasted so that the rebels would find no support. Those confined in camps 
were underfed, and at first the Spaniards would not admit relief from the 
United States. With little Spanish success the war in Cuba, much criticized 
in the United States, dragged on. 

435 



436 THE WAR WITH SPAIN AND LATER EVENTS 



medicine and food to the Cubans, perhaps one purpose was 
to show that the disagreement with Spain had become 
serious. On February 15, 1898, the Maine was blown up 
and 260 sailors were killed. Believing that this atrocity 
was the act of Spanish officials, the American people called 
for war.^ Spain promised to satisfy nearly all American 
demands, and, like Cleveland, President McKinley favored 
peace. However, Congress was for war, and its attitude 
was approved by the people. 

On April 11 the President recommended forcible inter- 
vention. Con- 
gress not only 
acted upon his 
advice but on 
the 19th ac- 
knowledged the 
independence of 
Cuba, though 
the rebel gov- 
ernment had no 




CUBA AND PORTO RICO 



This action was followed by 
— After the war broke out, 



capital and no fixed territory.^ 
war with Spain. 

Conquest of the Philippines. 
the chief ports of Cuba were blockaded by a fleet that had 
been stationed at Key West. Another squadron, under 
Commodore George Dewey, was at Hongkong, in Chinese 
waters (map, page 441). That officer was ordered to find 
the Spanish fleet in the Pacific. It was soon located. Run- 
ning, under cover of darkness, past the forts at the entrance 

1 To this day it is not certainly known whether the destruction of the 
Maine was caused by Cuban or by Spanish treachery. 

2 When Congress acknowledged Cuban independence, it put an end to all 
hope of annexation, for it had helped to make of the island a new nation. 
If its independence had not been acknowledged, Cuba could have been 
annexed when the war was over. 



WAR IN THE PHILIPPINES AND CUBA 



437 



: u^ 





D 




of Manila Bay, Dewey's ships encountered the Spanish fleet 
on May 1, 1898. Without the loss of a man his superior 
gunnery destroyed all the ves- 
sels of the enemy. 

At that moment many of 
the Filipinos were in revolt 
against Spain. Their leader, 
Aguinaldo, for a time united 
with the Americans and be- 
sieged Manila. Later General 
Merritt with 20,000 men was 
sent across the Pacific to 
occupy the Philippines. 

Cervera's Fleet. — While 
these events were in progress, 
Admiral Cervera (ther-va'rah) 
sailed from the Cape Verde 
Islands, crossed the Atlantic, 
and entered the harbor of 
Santiago, in Cuba. There he 

was found by the American fleet. The narrow entrance to 
that port was guarded by strong forts.^ 

Battles of El Caney and San Juan. — As Cervera could 
not be successfully attacked by water, it was decided to 
disembark soldiers near Santiago and by a land attack force 
him to leave the harbor. Meanwhile the American fleet 
commanded by Acting Rear Admiral Sampson and Com- 
modore Schley (sli) waited outside. On June 22 General 
Shafter began to land soldiers near Santiago. By assault 

' To prevent the escape of the Spanish vessels, Lieutenant Richmond P. 
Hobson with a volunteer crew of seven took the collier Mcrritnac into a 
narrow part of the channel and sank her. The plan was well conceived and 
bravely attempted, but the fire of the forts injured the steering apparatus 
of the Mcrrimac so that her commander was not able to sink her precisely 
where he had intended. This left a part of the passage still open. 



Manila Bah J- V(C\ 

SI ^ y^ > 

MINDOflO/ \-^ 



WAN 

NEGR 
S U L U 



S B 

O 
"«s 'SULU 

10HT« B0RNE5)-' ^ ISLANDS 

•<a.-' CELEBES S EA 



THE PHILIPPINES 



438 THE WAR WITH SPAIN AND LATER EVENTS 



on July 1 they took the strong Spanish posts of El Caney 
(kah-na) and San Juan (hwahn). In this fighting General 
Joseph Wheeler, an ex-Confeclerate officer, and Lieutenant 
Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, in command of the Rough 
Riders, particularly distinguished themselves. 

The fall of Santiago seemed so certain that on July 3 
Admiral Cervera made a dash for the open sea. Then 
occurred a running fight in which, after a few hours, every 
one of the Spanish vessels was destroyed. The American 
fleet escaped without serious injury. 

Deprived of the assistance of the fleet, the Spanish com- 
mander, General 
Toral, a few weeks 
later, surrendered 
the city of Santiago 
and a considerable 
Spanish army. 

Porto Rico. — 
Another Spanish 
colony was the valu- 
able island of Porto 
Rico. With a strong 
force General Miles 
set off to conquer 
it. Landing near 
Ponce (pon'tha) 
on August 1, 1898, 
he was advancing 
across the island 
when the war came 
to an end. 

Treaty of Paris, 1898. — Through the French minister 
in Washington, Spain inquired on what terms the United 
States would consent to make peace. The terms were 




BLOCKHOUSE ON SAN JUAN HILL 



ANNEXATIONS 439 

stated by President McKinley.' On December 10, 1898, 
was signed tlie treaty of Paris, which four months later 
went into force. By its provisions Spain withdrew from 
Cuba, and ceded Porto Rico, Guam (one of tlie Ladrone 
Islands), and the Philippines to the United States. In 
return the United States paid Spain $20,000,000. 

Annexation of Hawaiian Islands. — The desire of Hawaii 
for annexation to the United States has been mentioned 
(page 433). The possibility of our holding the Philippines 
gave a new importance to the Hawaiian Islands, and during 
the progress of the war with Spain, in July, 1898, they were 
annexed. Two years later they were formed into the terri- 
tory of Hawaii." 

Cuba. — • We have seen that war with Spain began when 
Congress acknowledged the independence of Cuba. There- 
fore, when the United States was victorious, Cuba was free. 
For a time, however, the American army remained in con- 
trol, and introduced some sanitary and other reforms. 
Meanwhile the Cubans elected delegates to a convention 
and framed a constitution. When this was adopted and a 
president elected, our army was withdrawn (May 20, 1902). 
To prevent the island's falling into the hands of European 

1 On August 12 an agreement was signed which provided (1) that hostili- 
ties should immediately cease, (2) that Spain should withdraw from Cuba 
and cede to the United States, Porto Rico and an island in the Ladrones, 
and (3) that until peace was signed and the fate of the Philippines was 
settled the harbor of Manila should be held by us. Before tidings reached 
the East that steps toward peace were being taken, a combined attack of 
Dewey's fleet and Merritt's army had captured the city of Manila on 
August 13. 

2 Soon after the annexation of Hawaii a number of small islands in the 
Pacific were acquired by the United States. Early in 1899, Wake Island was 
taken over. Part of the Samoa group was acquired by a joint treaty with 
Great Britain and Germany, in the year 1900. Many other islets in the 
Pacific, mere rocks or coral reefs, among them the Midway Islands, were, at 
different times, taken up. These are valuable for telegraph and coaling 
stations. 




MO 



THE PHILIPPINES 



441 




THE UNITED STATES AND ITS POSSESSIONS 

powers, however, the Piatt Amendment places some re- 
straints on Cuba. 

Porto Rico. — Porto Rico was made practically a colony 
of the IInit(Kl States. For it Congress provided a system of 
civil government, which went into effect on May 1, 1900. 
This consisted of a governor and executive council appointed 
by the President, and a House of Delegates elected by the 
people. A commissioner representing the island resides in 
Washington, D. C. In 1917 the Porto Ricans were made 
citizens of the United States and were given the right to 
elect both houses of their legislature.'^ 

War in the Philippines. — When the Philippine Islands 
were acquired by the United States, the Filipino leader 
Aguinaldo demanded that they be turned over to his party, 
and when this was refused, he attacked our troops. In 
many battles the natives were defeated and Aguinaldo was 
finally captured. 



' Three of the Virgin Islands, east of Porto Rico, were purchased from 
Denmark in 1916, for $25,UUU.UUU. 



442 THE W All WITH SPAIN AND LATER EVENTS 



Government and People of Philippines. — The Philip- 
pine group, discovered by Magellan, includes, large and 
small, about 2000 islands, with a population of about 
8,000,000. Of these more than half a million are savages, 
many possess the elements of civilization, and still others 
are highly civilized. For some time the islands were ruled 
by the President through the army and afterward by a 
commission whose members he appointed. This commis- 
sion, with Judge William Howard Taft as its president, 
began its work in June, 1900. Two years later Congress 

provided for the 



island a new 
system of gov- 
ernment. This 
included a gov- 
ernor and a 
legislature of 
t w o branches, 
one of which 
was chosen by 
the Filipinos. 
In 1916 the 
Filipinos were 
given the right 
to elect both houses, and Congress declared its intention 
to give the Philippines independence as soon as a stable 
government should be established therein. 

The Hague Agreements. — In response to an invitation 
of the Emperor of Russia delegates from many nations met at 
The Hague, Holland, in 1899, and again in 1907. Several 
agreements were entered into. One of these covenants 
revised the rules of war and forbade the use of poison, of 
projectiles dropped from balloons, and of bullets which ex- 
pand in the human body. Another provided for a perma- 




«».^i 



FIIJPINOS HHLLINC 



THE SUBMARINE 443 

nent court of arbitration at The Hague. Before that tri- 
bunal international disputes might be brought with the 
consent of the governments concerned. 

The *' Pious Fund of the Calif ornias." — Cruel calum- 
nies beUeved by the king of Spain, had led in 1767 to the 
expulsion from the southwest of all members of the Society 
of Jesus. Their work in that region had been in the pen- 
insula of lower Cahfornia. As was their custom, they 
instructed the Indians not only in the principles of Chris- 
tianity and other elements of knowledge but also in the 
useful arts. Zealous persons had given money to maintain 
this important work in all the country known as California. 
By a decree of 1842 this fund was taken by the Mexican 
government, which, in order to carry out the intention of 
the donors, undertook to pay interest thereon. But when, 
in 1848, upper California was sold to the United States, the 
Mexican government refused to pay the share of interest 
to which that region was entitled. However, an umpire 
awarded nearly SI 00, 000 to the bishops of California as 
administrators of the fund. But after October, 1868, 
Mexico again withheld the interest. Thereupon, on behalf 
of the bishops, our government made an unsuccessful claim 
against Mexico. Finally the case was satisfactorily settled 
in October, 1902, by the Hague Tribunal, to which it had 
been carried. The subject is interesting not only because 
of its historical associations but because it was the first case 
decided by that court. It likewise illustrates the enlight- 
ened method of settling international disputes by arbitra- 
tion. The example of the United States was significant. 

The Submarme. — On March 17, 1898, there was given in 
New York harbor the first test of the diving abilities of the 
Holland No. 9, a submarine vessel .invented by John Patrick 
Holland. Later it was shown that without endangering the 
lives of its crew the submarine could remain under water for 



444 THE WAR WITH SPAIN AND LATER EVENTS 

a week. During the war with Spain (1898), Mr. Holland 
requested of the Secretary of the Navy permission to enter 
Santiago harbor and sink the fleet of Cervera. But our navy 
had then no knowledge of submarines and the application of 
the inventor was not considered. In 1900 this model of de- 
sign and workmanship, the Holland No. 9, was sold to the 




HOLLAND SUBMARINE OF 1901 



Navy Department for $150,000. Its inventor was a young 
Irishman, who came to this country in 1868. While teach- 
in a parochial school at Paterson, New Jersey, Holland began 
work on his invention, which seems likely to have even more 
influence upon naval warfare than the Monitor of Ericsson. 
Simon Lake, another inventor, perfected a different type of 
under-sea vessel. 

Election of 1900. — The Republican convention nomi- 
nated William McKinley and Colonel Theodore Roosevelt 
for President and Vice President. The Democrats selected 
William J. Bryan and Adlai Stevenson. In addition to the 
nominees of the two great parties there were eight or nine 
other conventions which named candidates for President 
and Vice President. From the forty-five states the Repub- 
lican candidates received 292 electoral votes and the Demo- 
cratic 155. 

McKinley Assassinated. — During the summer of 1901 
an exposition held in Buffalo was attended by President 
McKinley. Many of the visitors shook hands with him 



ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 



445 




during a pul)lic reception on September 6. Among others 
an anarchist advanced as if to shake the President's hand, 
but instead drew a pistol and shot him. As a result of his 
wound President McKinley, who lingered a week, died on 
September 14, when Colonel 
Roosevelt succeeded to the 
presidency. 

Chinese Exclusion Act. — 
Among other legislative meas- 
ures recommended by President 
Roosevelt in his first message 
to Congress (December, 1901) 
was one concerning Chinese 
laborers. In 1902 the Chinese 
Exclusion Act was extended to 
our insular possessions. In 
consequence of this new legis- 
lation no laborer of that race 
is allowed to enter any of our islands. Those already in 
the islands may not go from one group to another or enter 
an}' state of this Union. 

Government Irrigation. — Another measure suggested to 
Congress and approved by it was the irrigation at govern- 
ment expense of the arid public lands of the West. Vast 
reservoirs or dams were built and canals constructed to 
carry the water thus stored to lands which were to be re- 
claimed. Flourishing towns now exist in regions that were 
desert when Colonel Roosevelt became President. 

Strike of Coal Miners. — Early in the administration of 
President Roosevelt a protracted strike occurred among 
the anthracite mine workers of northeastern Pennsylvania. 
The strikers insisted upon higher wages, fewer hours of 
lal:»or, and the recognition by emploj'^ers of the miners' 
union. Very unwillingly the emploj'ers consented, at 



THEODORE ROOSEVELT 



446 THE WAR WITH SPAIN AND LATER EVENTS 

President Roosevelt's request, to submit the dispute to the 
arbitration of a commission, which finaily granted in sub- 
stance the demands of the miners. 

The Panama Canal. — After expending $250,000,000 in 
an attempt to cut a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, 
a French company became bankrupt. Then a reorgan- 
ized French company offered to sell to the United States 
for $40,000,000 all its rights and property. In June, 
1902, Congress authorized the President to accept this 
offer, provided a satisfactory title could be acquired, and 
to complete the canal at a cost not to exceed $120,000,000. 




TOWING A SHIP THROUGH THE PANAMA CANAL 

For the necessary concessions the United States offered 
generous compensation to the republic of Colombia to 
which the state of Panama belonged. But under a belief 
that a far larger sum could be obtained that government 
failed to ratify a treaty proposed by us in 1903. This 
action was the signal for a revolt in Panama, which was 
soon formed into an independent republic. B}^ sending 
warships thither the United States prevented Colombia 



ROOSEVELT'S ADMLNISTRATION 447 

from winning back her revolted province, and also ac- 
knowledged the independence of Panama (November, 1903). 
From it such concessions were obtained as were needed to 
complete the canal. The $10,000,000 that had been 
offered Colombia was eagerly accepted by Panama; as was 
also a perpetual annuity of $250,000 which was to begin 
nine years from the date of ratifying the treaty. In return 
our government secured the jurisdiction over a zone or 
strip of territory five miles wide on either side of the canal, 
and any additional land necessary for its construction and 
maintenance. 

The Panama policy of the President was denounced by 
many Democrats, but the treaty passed the Senate by a 
vote of 66 to 14. The canal, which was completed in 
1913, shortens the voyage from New York to San Fran- 
cisco by about 9000 miles. It enables our warships to pass 
easily from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. ^ 

Presidential Election of 1904. — Roosevelt's record 
singled him out by his grateful followers for a full term. 
The Democrats nominated Judge Alton B. Parker, of New 
York. The People's Party, the Prohibitionists, the Social- 
ists, and other political groups also offered tickets. The 
Republican candidate was elected by a very large majority. 

Oklahoma Admitted. — The admission in 1907 of Okla- 
homa increased the number of states in the Union to forty- 
six. The region included in the new state was nearly un- 
settled twenty years before and was chiefly given up to 
cattle grazing. Besides its pasture land it has many other 
resources and at the date of its admission had a population 
of 1,408,732. In a word, it sprang into existence as a 
wealthy and important state. 

■ American enthusiasm for the construction of that great waterway was 
stimulated by the fact that to take part in the war against Spain the battle- 
ship Oregon was compelled to make the voyage from San Francisco around 
Cape Horn to join our fleet, then in the West Indies. 



448 THE WAR WITH SPAIN AND LATER EVENTS 



The Pure Food Act. — Tho Pure Food Act was passed 
in 1906 to prevent the manufacture of "adulterated or mis- 
branded or poisonous or deleterious foods, drugs, medicines, 
and liquors " in the District of Columbia and the territories, 
or the transportation of such articles from one state to 
another. 

The Conservation Policy. — The immense natural re- 
sources of this country, hitherto not always carefully used, 
President Roosevelt was anxious to conserve. He added 
millions of acres to the forest reserves. Mines and water- 
power sites also came in for regulation. By inviting (1908) 
to the White House (the Executive Mansion) the governors 
of the various states, President Roosevelt brought to their 
attention in an impressive manner the evils of the old prac- 
tice which had wasted mines, water-power sites, and fine 
forests. 

The San Francisco Fire. — In April, 1906, an earthquake 
did consideral)le damage in western Cahfornia. In San 
Francisco it overturned houses, de- 
stroyed water mains, and started 
fires that burned over an immense 
area. In this calamity hundreds of 
people lost their lives, while in San 
Francisco alone the property de- 
stroyed has been estimated at 
$400,000,000. 

Election of 1908. — The charac- 
ter, ability, and services of William 
Howard Taft, as well as Roosevelt's friendship for him, 
made him the presidential candidate of the Republican 
party in the summer of 1908. The Democrats for the 
third time nominated William J. Bryan. For the third 
lime, too, the Socialists named Eugene V. Debs. The 
Repii})licans won by a very decided majority, their candi- 




WILLIAM H. TAFT 



TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION 449 

dates having received 321 electoral votes, the Democratic 
nominees 162.^ 

The Payne-Aldrich Bill, — In 1909 the new President 
called a special session of Congress to revise the tariff. On 
August 5 the Payne-Aldrich bill, which continued the Re- 
publican policy of protection, was passed. The rate of 
duties on woolen goods was little changed, though the 
tariff on metals, leather, and lumber was reduced. Be- 
lieving that the new tariff rates would be greatly reduced, 
the Republicans of the West were disappointed. This 
somewhat weakened the unity and harmony of the Re- 
publican party. Congress imposed a light tax on the earn- 
ings of corporations, and also proposed an amendment of 
the Constitution which would make it lawful to tax incomes. 

During his administration President Taft waged legal war- 
fare against some of the great combinations of capital known 
as "trusts." In May, 1911, the United States Supreme 
Court made decisions dissolving both the Standard Oil 
Company and the American Tobacco Company, but as the 
smaller companies which made up these corporations did not 
enter into competition, the public gained little advantage 
from the action of the Court, which was taken because the 
" trusts" were held to be guilty of " restraint of trade and 
monopolization." 

Postal Savings Banks. — In June, 1910, Congress es- 
tablished a system of savings banks to be managed by the 
Post Office Department. These were designed to provide 
for thrifty people a perfectly safe place in which to deposit 
their savings. From any person ten years of age or over, 
the postal banks will receive amounts from one dollar to 
$2500, and will pay interest at the rate of two per cent. 

Two years later, August, 1912, Congress empowered the 

1 Thore were cast for Taft 7,678,908 votes, for Bryan 6,409,104. Debs 
received 420,792 votes. 



450 THE WAR WITH SPAIN AND LATER EVENTS 



postal authorities to establish a system of domestic parcel 
post. Much of the business formerly done by express com- 
panies, and a great deal besides, is now transacted by the 
Post Office Department. 

New States. — In 1912 New Mexico and Arizona were 
admitted into the Union as new states, thus increasing the 
number of stars on our flag to forty-eight and rounding out 









BUILDING AN IRRIGATION DAM IN NEW MEXICO 



our Republic. The only territories remaining were Alaska 
and the insular possessions. 

Election of 1910. — In 1910 the Democrats, for the first 
time since 1895, gained a majority in the House of Repre- 
sentatives. In fact, they carried such Republican strong- 
holds as Massachusetts, Ohio, and Vermont. This result 
showed that the Payne-Aldrich tariff, a measure believed 
to have been shaped by the moneyed interests, was not 
popular. A small band of Republicans, known as "In- 
surgents," had opposed its passage. 



ELECTION OF 1912 451 

Election of 1912. — The "Insurgents " remained out of 
harmony with the leaders of their party and by 1912 came 
to be generally known as "Progressives." This element 
opposed the renomination of President Taft and favored the 
candidacy of Colonel Roosevelt. When the Republican 
convention met in Chicago, June 18, 1912, rival delegates 
claimed many seats. In a majority of cases these disputes 
were settled in favor of Mr. Taft's supporters. Thereupon 
Roosevelt advised his friends to take no further part in the 
proceedings. On the first ballot President Taft received the 
nomination. The "Progressives " met on August 5 in Chi- 
cago and nominated former President Roosevelt. 

The Democratic convention, which had meanwhile as- 
sembled in Baltimore, was largely controlled by Mr. Bryan. 
Its strongest candidates were Mr. Champ Clark, Speaker 
of the House of Representatives, and Governor Woodrow 
Wilson, of New Jersey. Speaker Clark received the votes 
of a majority, but to gain the nomination in a Democratic 
national nominating convention the support of two thirds 
of the delegates is required.^ The influence of Mr. Bryan 
inclined the contest in favor of Governor Wilson, who on the 
46th ballot received the votes of nearly all the delegates. 

During the campaign the Republicans, in almost every 
state, separated into two camps which bitterly assailed each 
other. In this situation Wilson won an overwhelming 
victory, receiving 435 electoral votes as against 88 for 
Roosevelt and 8 for Taft.^ The popular vote was 0,290,000 
for Wilson, 4,123,206 for Roosevelt, 3,484,529 for Taft, and 
898,296 for Debs. 

' In a Republican convention the candidate who receives a majoritij (one 
more than half) gains the nomination. 

2 The useful measures recommended by President Taft deserved a better 
fate than that which overtook them. His efforts to insure peace among the 
nations of the world were defeated by the action of the United States Senate, 
while his plan to establish better trade relations with Canada came to 
nothing because of the opposition of the people of that Dominion. 



452 THE WAR WITH SPAIN AND LATER EVENTS 

Recent Constitutional Development 

The Initiative and the Referendum. — In recent times 
there has grown up a tendency to lessen the power of state 
legislatures and to give to the whole body of voters a direct 
share in suggesting and approving laws. This is provided 
for by the Initiative and the Referendum, Their operation 
will be made clear by quoting from Article V of the Okla- 
homa constitution of 1907, which provides that " the 
legislative authority of the State shall be vested in a legis- 
lature, consisting of a senate and a house of representatives; 
but the people reserve to themselves the power to propose 
laws and amendments to the constitution and to enact or 
reject the same at the polls independent of the legislature, 
and also reserve power at their own option to approve or 
reject at the polls any act of the legislature." 

Under the Initiative a certain proportion of the. qualified 
voters (eight per cent in some states) can propose a law by 
petition; every such petition must include the full text of 
the proposed measure. It is then voted on in an election, 
and becomes law if approved by the majority. The Refer- 
endum may usually be ordered either by petition of a certain 
percentage of the legal voters (five per cent in some states), 
or by the legislature. If a bill proposed by Initiative, or 
an act on which the Referendum is demanded, be approved 
by a majority of the legal voters, it cannot afterward be 
vetoed by the governor. 

Beginning with South Dakota in 1898, the Initiative and 
Referendum were adopted, within twenty years, by more 
than a third of the states in the Union. 

Municipal Government. — When we reflect that more 
than one third of the people of the United States dwell in 
cities, the importance of municipal government becomes 
evident. Foreigners visiting the United States and making 



MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT 453 

a study of our polilical institutions bestow much praise 
upon American governmental systems. From this com- 
mendation, however, municipal or city government is often 
excepted. This appears to be because this form of govern- 
ment is comparatively new in the United States. In the 
year 1787 there were in this country very few cities. At 
the time of Washington's inauguration Philadelphia had 
a population of only 42,000. New York came next with 
33,000 people, while Boston had not yet become a city. 
The novelty of city government, then, may be offered as an 
explanation of our partial failure in this single field. More- 
over, municipal government? is exceedingly complex. 
Nevertheless, it may be confidently asserted that it will 
soon exhibit as great efficiency as that which we see in the 
Federal system and in the government of rural localities. 

In the details of their government American cities show 
great differences, though in the large outlines there is a 
general resemblance. Originally the mayor of an American 
city was an official of considerable importance, but gradu- 
ally he was stripped of many powers. When this came to 
pass, various city officers and Ijoards of aldermen or councils 
found it easy to undertake and to carry out schemes 
injurious to the public. This system began to attract 
attention only when there was noticed a marked increase 
in the rate of taxation. State supervision of city officials 
did not prove effective. 

Government by a Commission. — The defects enumer- 
ated have led some leaders to recommend for cities in 
general the system of government by a commission com- 
posed of few members. Those who advocate this plan 
claim that in the make-up of commissions the people get 
the benefits of expert service. They likewise assert that it 
has been found more efficient as well as more economical 
than the oldei- governments. First tried in Cialveston, 



454 THE WAR WITH .S1\\.1N AND LATER EVENT'S 

Texas, in 1900, this system was adopted, within fifteen years, 
in several hundred cities and towns. But there is much 
difference between the management of a small and a large 
city; and many men familiar with municipal affairs dis- 
approve of the new plan. 

The Recall. — Another indication that local govern- 
ments are often not what the people desire is the practice 
in some cities and states of recalling to private life an officer 
who is unsatisfactory, and electing a successor for the 
unexpired term. An election for this purpose is called on 
the petition of a certain percentage of the voters. But it 
little matters under what gj'^stem of government we live 
unless the citizens, especially the more intelligent, are active, 
vigilant, and incorruptible. In other words, no form of 
government will run itself, but every system requires the 
enlightened guidance of watchful citizens. Nor is vigilance 
alone sufficient. Under our democratic system of govern- 
ment it is no less the duty of every citizen to be educated. 

Direct Primaries. — A reform that has been adopted in 
most of the states is the use of primary elections, instead 
of conventions, to select the candidates of each political 
party for public offices. Thus the voters in each party 
ballot directly to choose their candidates for local and state 
offices, and for members of Congress. In some states they 
may also express their preference for candidates for Presi- 
dent and Vice President. 

Woman Suffrage. — Movements for improving the civil 
and political position of women began in many states nearly 
a hundred years ago. Women gradually gained the desired 
rights in regard to property and business, and many colleges 
were opened to female students. They were also given the 
right to vote in school elections in many states. In 1869 
Wyoming gave them the right to vote in all elections on 
equal terms with rnen. Her example was followed in 1893- 



CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS 455 

1896 by three other western states — Colorado, Idaho, and 
Utah. In 1910-1918 equal suffrage was also secured in 
Washington, California, Arizona, Kansas, Oregon, Mon- 
tana, Nevada, New York, Michigan, South Dakota and 
Oklahoma.^ In various other states, however, proposed 
constitutional amendments to this effect were rejected by 
the voters. 

Meanwhile the advocates of equal suffrage urged an 
amendment to the Federal Constitution that would give the 
vote to women in all the states. In June, 1919, the pro- 
posed amendment passed both houses of Congress by the 
required two-thirds majority, and thus was submitted to the 
legislatures of the states for ratification. 

Constitutional Amendments. — The Sixteenth Amend- 
ment, giving Congress full power to levy income taxes, was 
ratified by the necessary number of states early in 1913. 
A few months later the Seventeenth Amendment was also 
ratified; it provided that United States senators should be 
elected by the voters instead of by the legislature of each 
state. This amendment had long been urged by many 
people, but before 1912 was several times defeated in the 
Senate. 

Prohibition. — Beginning with Maine in 1851, a number 
of states adopted laws or constitutional amendments pro- 
hibiting the liquor traffic, while other states passed laws 
permitting counties or cities to adopt local prohibition. 
By 1917 more than half the states were " dry." Near the 
end of that year Congress proposed the Eighteenth Amend- 
ment, which was ratified in January, 1919. This prohibits 
the liquor traffic in the whole country after January, 1920. 

1 In 1913 the Illinois legislature gave women the right to vote for presi- 
dential electors and all oflBces created by the legislature. The same action 
was taken later in Nebraska and North Dakota. In Rhode Island women 
were given the right to vote for presidential electors, and in Arkansas to 
vote in the party primaries. 



456 THE WAR WITH SPAIN AND LATER EVENTS 



Questions and References 

Review Questions. — Why was America interested in Cuba? 
What was the policy of General Weyler in dealing with the Cuban 
rebels? What occurred in Manila Bay in May, 1898? Why was 
Cuba not annexed to the United States? Describe the defeat of 
Admiral Cervera's fleet. What battles were fought near Santiago? 
When was Porto Rico acquired? What were the provisions of the 
treaty of Paris? Tell about the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands. 
What is said of the people and the government of the Philippines? 

What can you tell about the international agreements entered into 
at The Hague? Who invented the submarine? Who was elected 
President in 1900? Describe the manner of President McKinley's 
death. Who then succeeded to the presidency? What was President 
Roosevelt's method of reclaiming waste land? Who was responsible 
for settling the coal strike of the Pennsylvania miners? Relate the 
history of the Panama Canal. What was the forty-sixth state ad- 
mitted into the Union? How did the President seek to interest the 
states in his conservation policy? Who was chosen President in 
1908? What are the postal savings banks and what is the system 
of domestic parcel post? What two states completed the union of 
forty-eight? Who were the "Insurgents"? The Progressives? 
Describe the campaign of 1912, and its result. 

What is the Initiative? The Referendum? Is the superiority of 
city government by commission clearly proved? What leads to the 
recall of officials? Discuss suffrage for women. When did the Eight- 
eenth Amendment become a part of the Constitution? 

References. — Fish, The Development of American Nationality ; 
Garner and Lodge, The United States; E. P. Oberholtzer, Referendum 
in America; C. H. McCarthy, Civil Government in the United States. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 



WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION; WAR WITH GERMANY 

On March 4, 1913, Woodrow Wilson and Thomas Riley 
Marshall were duly inaugurated President and Vice Presi- 
dent. In a stirring address the new Executiv(> made it 
plain that he expected his party in Congress promptly to 
consider and to act upon the tariff and the currency. 

The Underwood Tariff. — To perform the promises of 
his party President Wilson called 
a special session of Congress. Fol- 
lowing the example of Washington 
and the elder Adams, he personally 
appeared at the Capitol and read 
to the national legislature his mes- 
sage, which urged a downward re- 
vision of the tariff. By October, 
1913, Congress passed the Under- 
wood measure, which greatly re- 
duced the rates fixed by the Payne- 
Aldrich bill. The new law, it was 
believed by the Democrats, would 
reduce the high cost of living. For 
one reason or another, however, it failed in that object. 
Republicans claimed, on the other hand, that the act was 
responsible for an industrial dullness that continued during 
the beginning of Pre.sident Wilson's first term. 

The Income Tax. — It was in 1913 that the Sixteenth 
Amendment gave Congress power "to lay and collect taxes 
on incomes, from whatever source derived." The Under- 

457 




WOODROW WILSON 



458 WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION 

wood bill accordingly levied a tax on incomes in excess of 
$3000 a year in the case of unmarried persons or $4000 
in the case of those living in the marriage relation. The 
tax was 1 per cent, plus surtaxes on larger incomes, rang- 
ing from 1 per cent on incomes in excess of $20,000, to 6 
per cent on incomes in excess of $500,000.^ 

The Federal Reserve Act. — Another part of the ad- 
ministration program was the enactment in 1913 of the 
Owen-Glass Bill. This provides for a system of regional 
reserve banks, which were made twelve in number. Each 
is formed by a union of the national banks in its district. 
The reserve banks are under the general control of a Federal 
Reserve Board consisting of seven members, namely, the 
Secretary of the Treasury, the Comptroller of Currency, 
and five other persons appointed by the President with the 
approval of the Senate. One object of this law is to pre- 
vent money panics. This end could be gained, it was 
believed, by making it difficult for capital to pile up where 
it is not needed and by causing it to move to places where 
it is in demand. The small banks which fared ill under 
the old system, were benefited by the new law. An im- 
portant provision is the arrangement by which any bank 
can deposit with the reserve bank the notes of business men 
to whom it has loaned money, and on such security borrow 
50 per cent of their value in new paper currency. These 
new federal reserve notes are guaranteed by the reserve bank 
and the United States and protected by a gold reserve of 
forty per cent. The reserve banks assist the government 
in selling its bonds. 

1 The rates were greatly increased later. On incomes of 1918 the amount 
of income exempt from tax was only $1000, or $2000 for married persons, 
plus $200 for each dependent. The rate was 6 per cent on income in excess 
of the exemption, up to $4000; 12 per cent on the remainder, plus surtaxes 
ranging from 1 per cent on excess over $.5000 to 65 per cent on excess over 
$1,000,000. 



ANARCHY IX MEXICO 459 

Anarchy in Mexico. — The successive administrations of 
President Diaz, of Mexico, had been marked by somewhat 
orderly progress in many, though not in all lines. Rela- 
tions with the outside world were friendly and with the 
United States they had apparently become cordial. Inter- 
nal improvements, suggested centuries before, had been 
completed, and the national credit was higher than ever. 
Citizens of Mexico were doubtless dreaming of peace and 
prosperity. But the picture changed suddenly. 

In 1911, at the reelection of Diaz, who had ruled his nation 
for thirty years, the people rose in revolt, which was ended 
only by his resignation. Madero, his successor, was de- 
posed by General Huerta (oo-er'tah) and was killed. But 
President Wilson, refusing to sanction murder as a prin- 
ciple of succession, declined to recognize Huerta as president 
of Mexico. Indeed, many Mexicans revolted against 
Huerta.' Large armies were assembled under Zapata, 
Villa, and Carranza, and after Huerta resigned, they fell to 
fighting one another. Carranza gained control of most of 
the country, and was recognized by Wilson as president of 
Mexico. But his authority was still disputed by Villa and 
his followers. During the many years of waste and 
slaughter our government was forced at great expense to 

' In that troubled season Huerta's men captured a few American sailors 
in a boat flying the American flag. Though they were released, the United 
States demanded an apology and a salute to the flag, which was refused. 
At that moment a German vessel loaded with munitions of war for the 
Mexican government was approaching Vera Cruz. To prevent the landing 
of its cargo President Wilson ordered the seizure of the customhouse in that 
city. Some fighting attended the occupation of this port, which was soon 
in the hands of American soldiers. An offer of mediation by the ministers 
of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile, popularly known as the A. B. C. envoys, 
brought about a cessation of the hostilities which had commenced. In 1914 
at Niagara Falls, Canada, the ministers from the three South American 
states met representatives from Mexico and the United States. Their agree- 
ment called for the resignation of Huerta and the withdrawal of our troops 
from Vera Cruz. This was finally effected, but the departure of Huerta 
failed to bring peace to Mexico. 



460 WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION 

guard our southwestern frontier, which was the scene of 
much fighting between the hostile factions and hkewise of 
some fatal raids into the United States. In these battles 
along the border many Americans lost their lives. After 
a raid by Villa, a small American army under General Per- 
shing entered Mexico in 1916, dispersed the bandits, suffered 
some losses, and was later recalled. For his policy of 
"watchful waiting" President Wilson has been severely 
criticized. Some of the troubles, however, had been in- 
herited from the administration of President Taft. 

The World War. — During the summer of 1914 there 
broke out in Europe the most destructive war in all history. 
By a sudden attack, Germany and Austria-Hungary tried 
to conquer several neighboring countries. By the end of 
1916 fourteen nations, great and small, were engaged in the 
conflict. In a proclamation President Wilson declared, 
early in the war, the neutrality of the United States and 
warned the American people against the commission of un- 
neutral acts. On the part of our government the greatest 
care was taken to avoid complications with any of the 
warring nations. 

Controversy with Germany. — From the beginning of 
hostilities vessels engaged in the trans-Atlantic trade had 
been carrying, in addition to passengers and ordinary mer- 
chandise, some munitions of war. Unable to capture such 
ships by lawful means, Germany tried to stop them by 
threats of frightfulness. Her submarine boats, in many 
instances without warning, sent to the bottom ships and car- 
goes; thus many passengers were drowned. When, May 7, 
1915, the British steamer Lusitania was torpedoed, 114 
American citizens lost their lives.^ This, together with the 

' In taking passage on a British merchant ship these citizens were en- 
tirely within their rights. In case the vessel were sunk, international law 
reauired that the captor should provide for the safety of their lives. 



WILSON'S REELECTION 



461 



destruction of tlie Laconia and otlier injuries less grave, led 
to a serious disagreement with Germany. 

As a result of strong protests by the United States, the 
German government, at a later stage, promised that mer- 
chant vessels unless they offered resistance or attempted to 
escape, would not be sunk without warning, and giving 
opportunity to save the lives of passengers and crew.^ 




ml- J ' -^ 

GERMAN SUBMARINE ABOUT TO SINK AN OCEAN LINER 



Wilson's Reelection. — When the presidential year 1916 
came round, the Democrats renominated President Wilson. 
The Republicans, on the other hand, named Charles E. 
Hughes, Justice of the United States Supreme Court. 
Though Colonel Roosevelt, who declined to stand a second 
time as a candidate of the "Progressives," supported the 
Republican ticket, Mr. Wilson was reelected, receiving 276 
votes to 255 for Mr. Hughes. Doubtless it was an advan- 

1 Mr. Bryan, Secretary of State, believed President Wilson should not 
have so firmly insisted upon respect for American rights and on June 5, 191", 
tendered his resignation, which was accepted. 



462 WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION 

tage to President Wilson to have been regarded as a friend 
of labor and to have honorably kept the country out of war. 
But in the second of his achievements there appears to have 
been an element of good fortune, for before his second ad- 
ministration was old he was confronted by problems graver 
than before. 

The Break with Germany. — Notwithstanding Ger- 
many's promise to impose restraints on her submarine war- 
fare, there was reported instance after instance all showing 
little care for victims helplessly drifting on stormy seas. 
This conduct was opposed to the past practice of all civilized 
powers, and it was followed by the withdrawal of Germany's 
promise to give warning. She announced that on and after 
February 1, 1917, her submarines would act without re- 
straint and would sink every ship that they found in the 
waters near the British Isles and France, and in most of 
the Mediterranean Sea Many vessels, those of friendly 
neutrals as well as those of belligerents, were ruthlessly 
destroyed. Even hospital ships carrying maimed and 
crippled men or relief ships conveying supplies to starving 
Belgians were sunk. In a word, there was begun, Febru- 
ary 1, the Avholesale destruction of men, women, and children 
engaged in pursuits that all civilized peoples had long held 
lawful. In the language of President Wilson, German sub- 
marine warfare against commerce had become "& warfare 
against mankind." 

On February 3, 1917, President Wilson informed Congress 
that diplomatic relations with Germany were broken off. 
On March 12 our government issued orders to place armed 
guards on American merchant ships. The crimes reported 
against Germany since the commencement of the war be- 
gan to be generally believed when its paid agents dynamited 
some of our factories, killing and injuring many American 
citizens. 



CAUSES OF THE WAR 463 

President Wilson Recommends War. ^ The records of 
our courts fully prove that spies were in this country even 
before the European war began, and that their intrigues 
were personally directed by official agents of Germany, 
while an intercepted note, of January 16, 1917, to the Ger- 
man minister to Mexico informed him that his government 
had resolved to break its promise to our government and 
instructed him to offer to Mexico the states of Texas, 
Arizona, and New Mexico provided Mexico would join 
Germany (and, if possible, Japan) in attacking the United 
States. In other words, at her convenience Germany pur- 
posed, by stirring up enemies at our doors, to act against 
our peace and safety. 

Moreover, while expressing the most cordial friendship 
for the American people, Germany had its agents at work 
in Japan and in Latin America. By controlling newspapers 
and supporting speakers they labored to stir up feelings of 
bitterness toward the United States. Furthermore, Ger- 
many succeeded in starting rebellions in Cuba and Haiti. 
A knowledge of these facts and of many others finally forced 
the President to act. He called Congress in special session 
and on April 2, 1917, delivered to the two Houses one of the 
ablest messages ever heard by a Congress of the United 
States. He advised that that body "declare the recent 
course of the Imperial German Government to be in fact 
nothing less than war against the Government and people 
of the United States; that it formally accept the status of 
belligerent which has thus been thrust upon it; and that it 
take immediate steps not only to put the country in a more 
thorough state of defense, but also to exert all its power and 
employ all its resources to bring the Government of the 
German Empire to terms and end the war." 

After no little debate Congress on April 6 passed reso- 
lutions such as had been recommended by President Wilson, 



464 WAR WTTTT CiERMANY 

namely, that the state of war Ijctween the United States 
and the Imperial German Government, which had l)een 
thrust upon the United States, was formally declared.^ 

Raising Armies. — The President also recommended to 
Congress an extension of credit to the chief European ene- 
mies of Germany, the mobilization of the material re- 
sources of this country, the full equipment of the navy, and 
an immediate addition to the armed forces of at least 
500,000 men to be chosen upon the principle of universal 
liability to service, with the authorization of later increases 
of equal strength when they were needed and their training 
was practicable. Again, by an almost unanimous vote, the 
Congress, without regard to the politics of its members, 
enacted into law the recommendations of the President. 
One act provided for the registration of all men be- 
tween the ages of twenty-one and thirty (both included) .- 
In carrying out this law the President, by proclamation, 
fixed June 5, 1917, as the day of registration for military 

1 The United States was forced into the war because there was no other 
means of defending her rights. President Wilson solemnly declared: "Wfe 
have no selfish ends to serve. We desire no conquest, no dominion. We 
seek no indemnities for ourselves, no material compensation for the sacrifices 
we shall freely make. We are but one of the champions of the rights of man- 
kind." In an eloquent address on June 14, 1917 (Flag Day), delivered at 
the Washington Monument, he said: "The extraordinary insults and aggres- 
sions of the Imperial German Government left us no self-respecting choice 
but to take up arms in defense of our rights as a free people and of honor as a 
sovereign government. The military masters of Germany denied us the 
right to be neutral. . . . They sought by violence to arrest our industries 
and destroy our commerce." In his Flag Day oration President Wilson 
also noticed the presence in the United States of many people prudent but 
disloyal. These all spoke the same language. They pretended to be ready 
and even eager to give up their lives for their country, but they asserted 
that they would not enlist to fight the battles of any European nation. They 
appeared not to know that the navies and the armies of Europe at that time 
protected our country from invasion and conquest. This nation, however, 
ignored pro-Germans as well as "Pacifists" and rapidly placed itself on a 
war footing. 

2 Under a later act (1918), the ages were eighteen to forty-five. 



THE -AMERKJAN RED CROSS 465 

service. Almost 10,000,000 young men were enrolled and 
from their number armies were raised and equipped as 
soon as practicable. The first draft took place July 20.^ 
Meanwhile many volunteers were accepted in both army 
and navy. Our warships promptly entered European 
waters to convoy merchant vessels and destroy submarines. 

An American expeditionary force, organized May 26, 
1917, under General John J. Pershing, soon landed in France. 
Not many soldiers were sent at first; but later the number 
was rapidly increased. At one period as many as 200,000 
troops were sent over in a single month. Before the signing 
of the armistice, Nov. 11, 1918, more than 2,000,000 
soldiers had been transported to Europe. 

The American Red Cross. — During our Civil War, 
Miss Clara Barton, as a volunteer nurse, acted a noble part 
in lessening the amount of human suffering. This service, 
however, as well as her activity in the later war against 
Spain, would have been little known, like the devotion of 
many forgotten heroines, but for her connection with an 
organization that has grown great. According to her 
account the honor of founding the Red Cross belongs to 
Henry Dinant, a Swiss gentleman who was shocked by the 
horrors of the battlefield of Solferino, Italy (1859). Soon 
after the International Red Cross of Europe was estab- 
lished. By its officers Miss Barton was invited to assist 
them in their work during the Franco-Prussian War (1870- 
71). On her return to the United States, though she was 

1 When Congress declared war, the War Department at once began to 
provide for the instruction of officers to command the new army. Its plan 
furnished in camps for well-educated civilian volunteers three months of 
hard training. These training camps, sixteen in number, were located at 
points between Plattsburg, New York, and San Francisco, California. 
When the period of instruction and drill was over, each successful student 
accepted such appointment in the Officers' Reserve Corps of the United 
States Army as the Secretary of War deemed proper to tender. 



466 WAR WITH GERMANY 

in feeble health, she never ceased her efforts to found a 
branch of the Red Cross and so to widen its scope that it 
would care not only for the victims of war but for every 
form of distress that is likely to afSict a nation. It was in 
1882 that her endeavor was crowned with success. Various 
occasions since that date called forth the praiseworthy 
activity of the association which she introduced into 
America and improved for humanity. 

But it was not until the Great War in Europe that the 
American Red Cross perfected its organization and per- 
formed that mighty work for stricken communities of which 
its foundress had fondly dreamed. A volume would be 
required to relate its noble deeds. But even if there were 
no records, in Belgium, in France, in Russia, and in other 
afflicted lands as well as in America, its service will be long 
remembered. 

The Y.M.C.A. — The spirit of the American people was 
also manifested in the war service of the Young Men's 
Christian Association, which exerted itself to the utmost to 
provide wholesome recreation for the soldiers, as well as to 
comfort the dying and to cheer the wounded and the sick. 
Grateful governments have testified to the extent and value 
of its assistance. Besides its regular activities, it main- 
tained at the camps, by request of the government, a system 
of canteens, at which could 1:)C purchased many articles 
much desired by soldiers. Moreover, its huts provided 
instruction for soldiers, in matters secular and religious, as 
well as many of the lighter forms of entertainment. 

The Knights of Columbus. — Working in entire har- 
mony with these two organizations, was the Knights of 
Columbus, a Catholic men's society which encourages 
education and especially enjoins devotion to country and 
church. Even before the Great War it had shown in a 
practical manner its high conception of patriotism. It had 



THE KNIGHTS OF COLUMBUS 



467 



SEE HIM THROUGH 



established in the Catholic University, at an expense of half 
a million dollars, fifty scholarships. To hold one of these, 
which are open only to laymen, the student must have 
already graduated from college, but whatever line of 
research he may be inclined to pursue, he is required by 
the letter of the foundation to follow a course of instruction 
in American history and insti- 
tutions. In thus becoming 
familiar with American ideals 
it will thereafter be easier for 
him to be true to democracy. 
Immediately after our par- 
ticipation in this war the na- 
tional officers of this society 
promptly began to plan a 
series of recreation centers for 
soldiers both at home and 
abroad. This idea was exe- 
cuted on a scale extremely 
generous. Witnesses unnum- 
bered have mentioned in 
terms the most complimen- 
tary the varied and splendid 
services of this society, which 
in addition to its attention to 
the physical needs of members of the army or the navy took 
care that for the spiritual welfare of Catholics there were suffi- 
cient chaplains. At an early stage of these activities the 
Knights of Columbus received by cable this message: 

" I wish on behalf of the troops under my command to thank the 
Knights of Columbus for the substantial service it is rendering the 
Army in France. Pershing." 

I In the "drive" of November, 1918, gifts of $200,000,000 were secured 
for the work of seven organizations — ■Catholic, Protestant, Hebrew, and 
nonsectarian. 




1ELP US TO 
HELP THE BOYS 

^NATIONAL CAI>K)UC WAR COUNCIL 
KNICHTS OF COLUMBUS 

united war wom Cinip«ifln - We«li o» Nowember 11-19 



POSTER USED IN 1018 ' 



468 WAR WITH GERMANY 

Other Patriotic Organizations. — Returning soldiers 
brought reports extremely favorable concerning the valuable 
services of the Salvation Army, an association which had 
fewer representatives in Europe than the societies already 
mentioned. In any account of these voluntary activities, 
which greatly lightened the burden of our government, one 
should not fail to mention the splendid work of the Jewish 
Welfare Board. 

"The War in 1914-1917. — Clearly to understand the part 
performed V)y America in winning the war it is necessary to 
describe conditions in the Old World. When our country 
entered the war, the Central Powers (Germany and Austria) 
had been fighting the Entente (ahn-tahnf) Allies (Great 
Britain, France, and Russia) for nearly three years. The 
early successes of the Teutonic nations had induced Turkey 
and Bulgaria to unite with them. On the other hand, 
Belgium, Serbia, Montenegro, Italy, Portugal, Roumania, 
and (to some extent) Japan had enlisted with the Allies. 
Through the long years victories had been won by both sides; 
each pretended to be confident of final success, but the end 
of the cruel struggle appeared to be far off. The Russians 
overthrew their emperor in March, 1917; and later the ex- 
treme radicals among them, called Bolsheviki (bol-she-ve-ke'), 
demoralized the army, seized power, and by treaty gave to 
Germany a large portion of the national domain. 

In this place we cannot describe in detail the plans by 
which the war was won. We can, however, name the more 
important forces that broke the power of Germany. 

The Blockade. — ■ Notwithstanding the confidence of the 
German people everywhere and the boastful nature of their 
claims, a deadly blow had been dealt the power of the 
Kaiser in the first month of the war. Germany, though she 
manifested great strength, never ceased to feel the effects 
of the blockade maintained chiefly by Great Britain. 



THE FORCES THAT BROUGHT VICTORY 469 

When the British navy had swept German shipping from 
the seas, the Kaiser's government decided to strike back with 
its submarines at the vessels of Great Britain and France. 
It was this campaign which finally forced into the war our 
country with its boundless power. British transports 
carried many of our troops to France, and on their arrival 
in European waters the British fleet assured them a safe 
landing. In this useful work, indeed, our own navy mate- 
rially assisted. In short, the Idockade, which ernliarrassed 
Germany from the beginning of the war, was an element of 
extreme importance in her downfall, while the military, 
the naval, and the financial resources of the United States 
formed another element, and one which men wiser than the 
rulers of Germany would have feared. 

Participation of the United States. — Germans in high 
office laughed when they heard that this country purposed 
to take part in the war, and led their countrymen to believe 
that the military power of America v/as a thing to be 
scorned. Early in the year 1918, however, it had become 
clear to German leaders that their submarines, destructive 
though they were, could not prevent American forces from 
crossing to France. Before they could arrive in large num- 
bers, therefore, it was resolved to strike hard at the British 
and French forces, so as to separate them and destroy them 
in turn. At first the plan met with considerable success. 
Though the struggle was going decidedly against the Allies, 
their commanders gave no hint to the Germans of the nature 
of the surprise in store for them. But this severe fighting 
had a result at once unexpected and eventful. It pointed 
out the necessity of unity in the command and led to the 
appointment of General Foch (fosh) as supreme commander. 

This unity of command was the third element in ultimate 
victory. It was on March 21, 1918, that the Germans be- 
gan the drive intended to destroy the Allied armies. By 



470 



WAR WITH GERMANY 



that time General Pershing had four divisions experienced 
in the trenches. On March 28 he placed at the disposal of 
Marshal Foch, commander in chief of the Allied armies, 
all the American forces in France. They were placed as 
reserves, while the first German drive was stopped by the 




BATTLE LINES IN FRANCE AND BELGIUM, 1914-1918 

British and French, after heavy losses. On May 28 an 
American division, confident of their training and eager 
for the test, with splendid dash took the town of Cantigny 
(kahn-ten-ye') and all other places indicated for them. 
These they steadfastly held in the face of vicious counter- 
attacks and an artillery fire of deadly precision. They 



AMERICAN VICTORIES 471 

demonstrated at once the fighting qualities of the American 
soldiers and made plain the fact that the Germans were not 
invincible. This brilliant action, says General Pershing, 
"had an electrical effect." 

Belleau ■Wood. — In a second drive, in May, 1918, the 
Germans rapidly advanced to the Marne River and toward 
the city of Paris. On that ground they had been terribly 
defeated by Marshal Joffre (zhofr) in September, 1914. In 
that victor}^ he had been assisted by a small British force. 
Marshal Foch, the present commander, had the assistance 
of Americans, who held their positions against every attempt 
of the best German guard divisions. In the battle of 
Belleau (bel-lo') Wood the Americans proved their su- 
periority and after inflicting on the enemy losses heavier 
than their own won a strong position. On July 1 one of 
our divisions captured the village of Vaux (vo). 

Soissons. — Marshal Foch acted on the defensive until 
after the middle of July. By that time he had learned to 
know the fighting qualities of the Americans; his supply 
of tanks was more abundant; his reserves were sufficient. 
He then took the offensive, which was brilliantly kept up 
until, more than one hundred days later, the power of Ger- 
many was broken.^ 

On July 18 in a thrust on Soissons (swah-sawn'), American 
divisions, the First and the Second, with chosen French 
divisions, were given the place of honor. The Germans, 
well supplied with artillery and machine guns, fought 
stubbornly, and brought up large numbers of reserves, but 

' At Rheims on July 15 there were American soldiers who did not flinch 
in the face of the enemy's most desperate attacks. Opposite Chateau- 
Thierry (sha-to' tyer-re') o single regiment, says General Pershing, on this 
occasion " wrote one of the most brilliant pages in our military annals." On 
its front it prevented Germans from crossing the Marne, while on its flanks 
the Germans who had gained a footing pressed forward. Firing in three 
directions, our men met the enemy attacks with counter-attacks, threw two 
German divisions into complete confusion, and captured 600 prisoners. 



472 



WAH WITH GERMANY 



they were driven back. The First Division after advancing 
for five days gained the heights above Soissons and captured 
a village. The Second, moving more rapidly, was equally 
successful. Together these divisions took 7000 prisoners 
and over 100 pieces of artillery. The great battle for the 

liberation of France had 
been well begun. De- 
feated a second time in 
their drive on Paris, the 
Germans after July 18 
began retreats which, by 
November 11 following, 
freed most of France 
and much of Belgium 
from their rule.^ 

St. Mihiel. — On 
August 30 General 
Pershing's troops took 
over about forty miles of 
the battle line. Chiefly 
at night nearly 600,000 
men with all necessary 
equipment were as- 
sembled in this sector. 
BOMBING PLANE r^^^ p^^^^j^ gencrously 

assisted with artillery and aircraft, the British with bomb- 
ing squadrons. By the morning of September 12 every- 

1 On the 18th of July, Torcy was taken by one American division, while 
another pursued the retreating Germans across the Marne. In the face of 
both machine gun and artillery fire another of our divisions, the Third, took 
the heights of Mont St. P&re, and the villages of Chart^ves and Jaulgonne. 
The Forty-second Division overwhelmed a nest of machine guns in the Foret 
de F^re. After another victory at Sergy it joined the Thirty-second in pur- 
suing the Germans to the river Vesle. Though, compared with the great 
battles of the war, these were minor engagements, they were important 
enough to show the superiority of American soldiers. 




AMERICAN VICTORIES 473 

thing was in readiness. Four hours of artillery preparation 
must have given notice to the enemy that something was 
afoot. At dawn seven American divisions assisted by 
tanks dashed out of a fog against Germans already de- 
moralized by the heavy artillery fire. Our soldiers over- 
came all opposition and with a loss of 7000 in killed, 
wounded, and missing, captured 16,000 prisoners, 443 guns, 
and released from the enemy the inhabitants of a large 
area. From its new position our army threatened Metz. 
The Allies learned that their American friends were for- 
midable and the Germans that the despised nation was 
dangerous. 

Meuse-Argonne Region. — After the brilliant victory 
at St. Mihiel, American troops began to move along the 
Meuse River and into the western part of the forest of 
Argonne. This movement was directed against the Ger- 
man line of communications over which their supplies had 
been brought for four years. Over a difficult country made 
almost impregnable by German skill our troops on Septem- 
ber 26 successfully drove through barbed wire entangle- 
ments and over multitudes of shell craters across No Man's 
Land, mastering the first-line defenses. By the 28th they 
had advanced from three to seven miles, talcing many 
villages. In this fighting, which had an element of sur- 
prise, General Pershing took 10,000 prisoners. 

Other divisions were highly praised by the British and 
French commanders under whom they served. The report 
of their successes encouraged our men in the Argonne forest, 
who resumed their advance on October 4. Though de- 
fended by a skill perfected by years of experience, an 
abundant supply of machine guns as well as artillery, and by 
chosen soldiers, on the 10th the enemy was driven by our 
men entirely out of the Argonne forest. 

Defeated in every engagement for weeks, the enemy, 



474 WAR wrnr ciermany 

whose spirit was broken, could no longer resist the American 
onslaught. By November 3 our troops had penetrated the 
German line to a distance of twelve miles. On the 5th a 
division had reached the Meuse opposite Sedan, after an 
advance of twenty-five miles. This was the goal toward 
which our armies had been moving. They had cut the 
enemy's main line of communications and, says General 
Pershing, "nothing but surrender or an armistice could 
save his army from complete disaster." From September 
26, 1918, to November 6, our armies in the Meuse-Argonne 
section had taken 26,059 German prisoners and 468 guns. 
With his victorious troops General Pershing was just be- 
ginning, November 11, other important operations when 
instructions were received that hostilities should cease at 
11 o'clock A.M. Thus the military phase of the war came 
to an end.^ 

The Terms of the Armistice. — Meanwhile the Allies had 
been brilliantly successful in other fields. The armies of 
Bulgaria, Turkey, and Austria-Hungary were destroyed or 
dispersed, and these countries accepted armistices that 
amounted to surrender. With similar disaster impending, 
Germany also yielded. Under the armistice of November 
11, 1918, the Germans hastily withdrew from Belgium, a 
kingdom which they had almost conquered and nearly de- 
stroyed, and from northern France, which in the first weeks 
of the war, August, 1914, they had occupied and much of 

1 In every engagement the raw soldiers of democracy had shown them- 
selves superior to the highly trained veterans of the Kaiser. On sunny days 
and through chilly nights they fought with equal courage and confidence. 
A single American victory might well have been ascribed to accident, but 
our soldiers, whether serving under British, French, or American com- 
manders, were invariably successful. In future times historians will deserv- 
edly praise the achievements of the American soldier, but they may not 
always make it clear to their readers that Germany did not feel the force of 
one tenth or, perhaps, one twentieth of the military power of the United 
States. 



CONTROL OF TPIANSPORTATION 475 

which they had afterward devastated. They evacuated 
Alsace-Lorraine and the left bank of the Rhine, and gave 
to the Allies and Americans control of the right bank of the 
Rhine.^ Moreover, they surrendered all their submarines, 
the best vessels of their navy, thousands of cannon, great 
numbers of airplanes and locomotives and railway cars. 
They set free the Allied and American prisoners of war. 
They promised also to make good the destruction which 
they had wrought on land and sea. Furthermore, they were 
compelled to renounce the treaty of Bucharest, which gave 
them advantages at the expense of Roumania, and the 
treaty of Brest-Litovsk by which among other things they 
were to control one fourth of European Russia. These 
proofs of victory make evident the extent of the disaster 
to German arms. 

Shipbuilding. — The United States had not been long en- 
gaged in the war when the demand for seagoing vessels be- 
came so great that one hundred thirty-two shipyards, situ- 
ated on all our coasts, were busily engaged in turning out 
steel and wooden cargo vessels for the government. Ships 
of concrete also were tested and made successful voyages. 

Government Control of Railways. ^ — In the exercise of 
power granted by Congress as a war measure, President 
Wilson on December 28, 1917, took over the "control and 
possession " of the railroad systems of this country. This 
included the supervision of about 260,000 miles of track, 
representing an investment of more than $16,000,000,000, 
and the employment of 1,700,000 persons. The govern- 
ment control of railways was to continue for a certain 
period after the war, when the property was to be returned 
to its owners. In June, 1918, he likewise took over the 
temporary control of the telegraph and telephone systems. 

' In going from the source toward the mouth of a river the land on the 
right side is called the right bank and that on the left side the left bank. 



476 



WILSON'S ADMIMSritA ri( ).V 



Expenditures. — For the fiscal year, June 30, 1917, to 
June 30, 1918, the Secretary of the Treasury calculated the 
total expenditures at $18,000,000,000. Of this immense 
sum $6,115,000,000 had been loaned to the Allies. It has 
been estimated that the cost of the war to the American 




PROVIDE THE SINEWS OF WAR 
BUY LIBERTY BONDS 



A SHIPYARD AS SHOWN IN A LIBERTY LOAN POSTER 

people for the two years following June 30, 1917, will be at 
least $36,000,000,000. The cost was met partly by heavy 
taxes and partly by loans. Within two years the people 
subscribed over $21,000,000,000 in five Liberty Loans. 

Conference at Versailles. — Of all the wars of which 
there is any record that which began in 1914 was for the 



QUESTIONS AND REFERENCES 477 

human race hy far the most disastrous. No other conflict, 
though many and bloody struggles have cursed the earth, 
has been to mankind the source of woes so great. Con- 
vinced of this fact, the more progressive states are now en- 
deavoring through a proposed league of nations forever to 
banish wars from our unhappy world. The twofold task of 
constituting .this league and of making terms of peace with 
Germany and her aUies was entrusted to a conference which 
began its sessions at Versailles, France, in January, 1919. 

Treaty with Germany. — On June 28, 1919, a treaty of 
peace was signed with Germany, by which she agreed to 
the constitution of a League of Nations, although herself 
not yet admitted as a member. She ceded Alsace-Lorraine 
to France, small areas to Belgium, large areas (partly sul)- 
ject to vote of the people concerned) to Poland, part of 
Sleswick (subject to vote) to Denmark, the German colony 
in China to Japan, and the other German colonies to the 
League of Nations. The coal of the Sarre Valle}^, adjoining 
Alsace-Lorraine, was given to France, and the valley was 
placed for fifteen years under the control of the League of 
Nations. Germany agreed to drastic reductions of her army 
and navy ; the payment of reparation for damage to civilians ; 
the replacement of shipping sunk by her submarine warfare ; 
and the surrender and trial of persons accused of responsi- 
bility for the war and of crimes committed in the war. She 
also agreed to accept the treaties that should be made by 
the Alhes with Austria, Bulgaria, and Turkey, and to ac- 
knowledge the independence of the new states recognized 
by the Allies. 

Questions and References 

Review Questions. — What was the program of President Wilson? 
What was the legislation concerning incomes? What do you know 
of the Federal Reserve Act? 



478 WAR WITH GERMANY 

Tell about the prospects of Mexico and about the sudden change. 
What did the United States do at Vera Cruz? Why did a part of 
our army enter Mexico? 

Why did German submarines sink our ships and take the lives of 
our citizens? What promise was made by the German Imperial 
Government? Why did President Wilson recommend war against 
Germany? What other recommendations were made by the Presi- 
dent? When did the first registration for military purposes take 
place? What did the President say about the ends or objects of our 
country? Why did we resort to war? Who commanded the American 
expeditionary force in France? 

What was the first severe blow dealt the power of Germany? What 
was the German opinion of the military strength of our country? 
Why were the leaders of that nation in a hurry to destroy the armies 
of Great Britain and France? What resulted from the appointment 
of General Foch to the command of all the armies on the side of the 
Allies? 

What was the result of the fighting at Cantigny? At Belleau 
Wood? Describe the engagement opposite Chateau Thierry. De- 
scribe General Pershing's great victory at St. Mihiel. Describe the 
cutting by the American armies of the German main line of com- 
munications. When was the armistice signed? 

What important step was taken by our Government on December 
27, 1917? In what way did the United States assist the Allies in 
addition to sending troops to the front? 

References. — Message of President Wilson to Congress, April 2, 
1917; also his address June 14, 1917; The Public Ledger, of Phila- 
delphia, August 5, 1917, and afterward; How the War Came to 
America, a book issued by the Committee on Public Information; 
American Review of Reviews for 1917 and 1918; Harper's Monthly, 
March and April, 1919; General Pershing's Report to the War De- 
partment. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNIIEI) STATES XVll 

2 Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the 
first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three 
classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at 
the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of 
the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, 
so that one thii'd may be chosen every second year ; and if vacancies 
happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature 
of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments 
until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such 
vacancies. 1 

3 No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age 
of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and 
who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he 
shall be chosen. 

4 The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the 
Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

5 The Senate shall choose their other otticers, and also a president pro 
tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise 
the office of President of the United States. 

6 The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. 
When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. 
When the President of the United States is tried, the chief justice shall 
preside : and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two 
thirds of the members present. 

7 Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to 
removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of 
honor, trust or profit under the United States : but the party convicted 
shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and 
punishment, according to law. 

Section 4. 1 The times, places, and manner of holding elections for 
senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the 
legislature thereof ; but the Congress may at any time by law make or 
alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 

2 The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such 
meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by 
law appoint a different day. 

Section 5. 1 Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and 
qr; ilifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute 
a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to 
day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, 
in such manner, and under such penalties as each House may provide. 

2 Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its 
members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two thirds, 
expel a member. 

3 Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time 
to time publish the .same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment 
require secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House 
on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be 
entered on the journal. 

4 Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the 
consent of the other, adjourn for inore than three days, nor to any other 
place than that m which the two Houses shall be sitting. 

^ The last half of this sentence was superseded by the 17th Amendment. 



XVUl CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

Section 6. 1 The senators and representatives shall receive a com- 
pensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the 
Treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, 
felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their 
attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and 
returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either House, 
they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

2 No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he 
was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the 
United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof 
shall have been increased during such time ; and no person holding any 
office under the United States shall be a member of either House during 
his continuance in office. 

Section 7. 1 All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the 
House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with 
amendments as on other bills. 

2 Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and 
the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President 
of the United States ; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall 
return it, with his objections to that House in which it shall have origi- 
nated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed 
to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two thirds of that House 
shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, 
to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if 
approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all 
such cases tlie votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, 
and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be en- 
tered on the journal of each House respectively. If any bill shall not be 
returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it 
shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner 
as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent 
its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 

3 Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a ques- 
tion of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United 
States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, 
or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate 
and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations pre- 
scribed in the case of a bill. 

Section 8. 1 The Congress shall have power to lay and collect 
taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the 
common defense and general welfare of the United States ; but all duties, 
imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout tlie United States ; 

2 To boiTow money on the credit of the United States ; 

3 To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several 
States, and with the Indian tribes ; 

4 To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on 
the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; 

6 To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and 
fix the standard of weights and measures ; 

6 To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and 
current coin of the United States ; 

7 To establish post offices and post roads ; 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xix 

8 To promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for 
limited times to autliors and inventors the exclusive right to their respec- 
tive writings and discoveries ; 

9 To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; 

10 To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high 
seas, and offenses against the law of nations ; 

11 To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make 
rules concerning captures on land and water ; 

12 To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that 
use shall be for a longer terra than two years ; 

13 To provide and maintain a navy ; 

14 To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and 
naval forces ; 

15 To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the 
Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions ; 

16 To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and 
for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the 
United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the 
olficers, and the authority of training the militia according to the disci- 
pline prescribed by Congress ; 

17 To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such 
district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular 
States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government 
of the United States,' and to exercise like authority over all places pur- 
chased by the consent of the legislature of the State in which the same 
shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and 
other needful buildings ; and 

18 To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying 
into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this 
Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department 
or officer thereof. 

Section 9. 1 The migration or importation of such persons as any 
of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be pro- 
hibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and 
eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceed- 
ing ten dollars for each person. - 

2 The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, 
unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may re- 
quire it. 

3 No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

4 No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in proportion 
to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 

5 No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. 

6 No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or reve- 
nue to the ports of one State over those of another : nor shall vessels 
bound to, or from, one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in 
another. 

7 No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of 
appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the 

1 The District of Columbia, which comes under these regulations, had not 
then been erected. 

2 A temporary clause, no longer in force. See also Article V. 



XX CJONSTITUTION (W THE UNITED STATES 

receipts aud expeuditures of all public money shall be published from time 
to time. 

8 No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: and no 
person holding any ofdce of profit or trust under them, shall, without the 
consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, 
of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign State. 

Section 10. i 1 No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or con- 
federation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills 
of credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of 
debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the 
obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

2 No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts 
or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary 
for executing its inspection laws : and the net produce of all duties and 
imposts laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of 
the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to 
the revision and control of the Congress. 

3 No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of 
tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any 
agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or 
engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as 
will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II 

Section 1. 1 The executive power shall be vested in a President of 
the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of 
four years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same 
term, be elected, as follows 

2 Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof 
may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators 
and representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: 
but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or 
profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 

The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot 
for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the 
same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the per- 
sons voted for, and of tlie number of votes for each ; which list they shall 
sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the 
United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The president of the 
Senate, shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, 
open all tlie certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person 
having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number 
be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if there be 
more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of 
votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by 
ballot one of them for President ; and if no person have a majority, then 
from the five highest on the list the said house shall in like manner choose 
the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken 
by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum 
for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of 
the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. 

1 See also the 10th, 13th, 14th, and 15th AmeuUments. 



CONSTITl'TION OF THE UNITED STATES xxi 

In every case, after the choice of the President, the person liaving the 
greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice President. But 
if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate 
shall choose from them by ballot the Vice President. ^ 

3 The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and 
the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be the same 
throughout the United States. 

4 No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United 
States, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to 
the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office 
who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-tive years, and been four- 
teen years a resident within the United States. 

5 In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, 
resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said 
ofiBce, the same shall devolve on the ^'ice President, and the Congress 
may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or ina- 
bility, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what officer 
shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until 
the disability be removed, or a President .shall be elected. 

6 The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- 
pensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the 
period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive 
within that period any other en\olument from the United States, or any 
of them. 

7 Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the fol- 
lowing oath or affirmation : — " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I 
will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and 
will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitu- 
tion of the United States." 

Section 2. 1 The President shall be commander in chief of the 
army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several 
States, when called into the actual service of the United States ; he may 
require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the 
executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their 
respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons 
for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

2 He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the 
Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators present con- 
cur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of 
the Senate, shall apjioint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, 
judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, 
whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which 
shall be established by law : but the Congress may by law vest the 
appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the Presi- 
dent alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads -of departments. 

3 The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may 
happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which 
shall expire at the end of their next session. 

Section 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress infor- 
mation of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration 
such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on 

1 This paragraph superseded by the 12lh Amendment. 



XXn CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in 
case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of adjourn- 
ment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he 
shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care 
that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall, commission all the officers 
of the United States. 

Section 4. The President, Vice President, and all civil officers of the 
United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and con- 
viction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III 

Section 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested 
in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may 
from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme 
and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and 
shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation which 
shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 

Section 2. 1 The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and 
equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, 
and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; — to 
all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls ; — 
to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; — to controversies to 
which the United States shall be a party ; — to controversies between two 
or more States ; — between a State and citizens of another State ; i — be- 
tween citizens of different States, — between citizens of the same State 
claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or 
the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens or subjects. 

2 In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and con- 
suls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court shall 
have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the 
Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, 
with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall 
make. 

3 The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by 
jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall 
have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the 
trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have 
directed. 

Section 3. 1 Treason against the United States, shall consist only in 
levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them 
aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the 
testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in 
open court. 

2 The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, 
but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture 
except during the life of the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV 

Section 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the 
public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And 

1 See the 11th .\mendment. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xxiii 

the Cougress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such 
acts, records and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

Section 2. 1 The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privi- 
leges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 

2 A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, 
who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall on de- 
mand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be 
delivered up to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. 

3 No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws 
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regu- 
lation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be 
delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may 
be due.i 

Section 3. 1 New States may be admitted by the Congress into this 
Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdic- 
tion of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two 
or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the legislatures 
of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. 

2 The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful 
rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging 
to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so con- 
strued as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular 
State. 

Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this 
Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them 
against invasion ; and on application of the legislature, or of the execu- 
tive (when the legislature cannot be convened) against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V 

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it 
necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall 
call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall 
be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when 
ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by 
conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of 
ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; Provided that no amend- 
ment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred 
and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the 
ninth section of the first article ; and that no State, without its consent, 
shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI 

1 All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the 
adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States 
under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 

2 This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be 
made in pursuance thereof ; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, 
under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the 
land ; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in 
the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwitl^tanding. 

^ See the 13th Amendment. 



XXIV 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 



3 The senators and representatives before mentioned, and tlie mem- 
bers of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, 
both of the United States, and of tlie several States, shall be bound by- 
oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious test 
shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under 
the United States. 

ARTICLE VII 

The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for 
the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the 
same. 

Done in Convention by the unanimous consent of the States present the 
seventeenth day of September in the year of our Lord one thousand 
seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the United 
States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto 
subscribed our names, 

Go: Washington — 

Presidt. and Deputy from Virginia 



N'eto Hampshire 

John Langdon 
Nicholas Gilinan 

Massaehuaettn 

Nathaniel Gorham 
Kufus King 



Connecticut 

Wm. Saml. Johnson 
Roger Sherman 

NetB York 
Alexander Hamilton 

Neic Jersey 

Wil : Livinfrston 
David Brearley 
Win. Paterson 
J una : Dayton 



Pennsylvania 

B. Franklin 
Thomas Mifflin 
Robt. Morris 
Geo. Clymer 
Thos. Fitzsimons 
Jared IngersoU 
James Wilson 
Gouv Morris 



Delaware 

Geo : Read 
Gunning Bedford Jun 
John Dickinson 
Richard Bassett 
Jaco : Broom 



Maryland 

James McHenry 

Dan of St. Thos Jenifer 

Danl. Carroll 



Virginia 

John Blair — 
James Madison Jr. 



North Carolina 

Wm. Blount 

Richd. Dobbs Spaight 

Hu Williamson 



South Carolina 

J. Rutledge 

Charles Cotesworth Pinckney 

Charles Pinckney 

Pierce Butler 



Georgia 



William Few 
Abr Baldwin 



Attest William Jackson Secretary. 



Articles in addition to, and amendment of, the Constitution of the United 
States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the legisla- 
tures of the several States pursuant to the fifth article of tlie original 
Constitution. 

ARTICLES I-Xi 



Article I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment 
of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the free- 
dom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to as- 
semble, and to petitirin ihe government for a redress of grievances. 

1 rill- tir.st ti'H AnitMiiliiieiits were adopted in IT'.'l. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES XXV 

Article II. A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security 
of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be 
infringed. 

Article III. No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any 
house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a 
manner to be prescribed by law. 

Article IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, 
houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, 
shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable 
cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the 
place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

Article V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or other- 
wise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand 
jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, 
when in actual service in time of war or public danger ; nor shall any 
person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life 
or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness 
against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due 
process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use without 
just compensation. 

Article VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy 
the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the 
State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which 
district shall have been previously ascertained by law. and to be informed 
of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the wit- 
nesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses 
in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. 

Article VII. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy 
shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, 
and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of 
the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. 

Article VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive 
fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

Article IX. The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights 
shall not be construed to deny or disparage otliers retained by the people. 

Article X. The powers not delegated to the United States by the 
Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the 
States respectively, or to the people. 

ARTICLE XI 1 

The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend 
to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the 
United States, by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of 
any foreign State. 

ARTICLE XII 2 

The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot 
for President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an 
inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; they shall name in their 
ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person 

1 Adopted in 1798. 2 Adopted in 1804. 



XXVI CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

voted for as Vice President, and they shall make distinct lists of all per- 
sons voted for as President and of all persons voted for as Vice President, 
and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and 
certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United 
States, directed to the president of the Senate; — The president of the 
Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, 
open all the certificates and tlie votes shall then be counted ; — The person 
having the greatest number of votes tor President shall be the President, 
if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; 
and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the 
highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as 
President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by 
ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be 
taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a 
quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two 
thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary 
to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a 
President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before 
the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice President shall act 
as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability 
of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as 
Vice President shall be the Vice President, if such number be a majority 
of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person have a 
majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall 
choose the Vice President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two 
thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole 
number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally 
ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice Presi- 
dent of the United States. 

ARTICLE XIII ^ 

Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a pun- 
ishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall 
exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by ap- 
propriate legislation. 

ARTICLE XIV 2 

Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and 
subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of 
the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law 
which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United 
States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, 
without due process of law ; nor deny to any person within its jurisdic- 
tion the equal protection of the laws. 

Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number 
of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right 
to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice 

1 Adopted in 18(i5. 2 Aflopted in 1868. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xxvil 

President of the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive 
and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the legislature thereof, 
is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one 
years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, 
except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representa- 
tion therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such 
male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one 
years of age in such State. 

Section ?,. No person shall be a senator or representative In Congress, 
or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or mili- 
tary, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously 
taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United 
States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judi- 
cial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, 
shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given 
aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of 
two thirds of each House, remove such disability. 

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, author- 
ized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties 
for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. 
But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt 
or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the 
United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; 
but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate 
legislation, the provisions of this article. 

ARTICLE XV 1 

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall 
not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account 
of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 

ARTICLE XVI 3 

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from 
whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, 
and without regard to aoy census or enumeration. 

ARTICLE XVII 3 

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from 
each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years ; and each Senator 
shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications 
requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures. 

When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, 
the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such 
vacancies : Provided, That the legislature of any State may empower the 
executive thereof to make temporarj^ appointments until the people fill 
the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. 

This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term 
of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. 

1 Adnptpfl in 1870. 2 Arloptofl in Htl.'.. s Adoptpd in 101.".. 



XXviii CONSTITUTION OF TIIIC UNITKI) STATES 



ARTICLE XVIII > 

Section 1. After one year from the ratification of this article the 
manufacture, sale, or ti'ansportation of intoxicating liquors within, the 
importation tlierecif into, or the exportation thereof from the United 
States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage 
purposes is herel\y prohibited. 

Skction 2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent 
power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 

Skction 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been 
ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the 
several States, as provided in the Constitution, within sevfiu years from 
the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress. 

1 Ratified in Junuary, 1919. 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS 

I. Early Navigators and Travelers 

The Northmen (985-1005). — 1. Character and achievements. 
2. Settlement of Greenland. 3. Discovery of North America (1000). 

4. Attempts at settlement. 5. Destruction of Greenland settle- 
ments. 6. No influence on Columbus. 

The ItaUans (1277-1453). — 1. Trade with Asia; the Polos. 2. 
The Franciscans in Cathay. 3. The Vivaldi brothers. 4. Influence 
of fall of Constantinople (1453) on prosperity of Venice and Genoa. 

5. Navigators went to Spain, England, and Franco. 

The Portuguese (1418-1498). — 1. Prince Henry the Navigator. 
2. School at Cape St. Vincent. 3. Bartholomeu Diaz (1487). 
4. Vasco da Gama (1498). 5. Influence of Portuguese voyages. 

6. Motives. 

11. Dlscovery of America by Columbus 

Christopher Columbus (1451-1506). — 1. Boyhood of Columbus. 
2. Columbus in Portugal. 3. Origin of his project. 4. Spanish 
friends; Columbus at La Rabida; Father Perez. 5. The contract. 
6. Objects (was explorer and missionary). 

7. Ships and crew: three ships, crew of 120. 8. Voyage of dis- 
covery. 9. Finds land — Guanahani (Bahama Islands), Oct. 12, 
1492. 10. Other discoveries. 11. Return voyage. 12. Reception. 
13. Treaty of Tordesillas. 14. Transfer of civilization to New World. 
15. Later voyages. 16. Downfall and death (1506). 17. Observa- 
tion of Thacher. 

III. Exploration and Early Settlements 

John Cabot (1497-1498), — 1. Discovery of mainland of North 
America (1497). 2. Second voyage (1498). 3. Advantage to 
England. 

Portuguese Exploration (1500-1501). — 1. Cabral's discovery of 
Brazil; result of interest in discovery created by Prince Henry. 

xxix 



XXX TOPICAL ANALYSIS 

2. Vespucci's voyage a result of Cabral's. 3. Naming America 
(1507). 

Later Spanish Discovery and Exploration (1513-1543). — 1. Dis- 
covery of the Pacific (1513). 2. Discovery of Florida. 3. Discov- 
ery of the Philippines. 4. Death of Magellan. 5. Circumnaviga- 
tion of the globe (1519-1522). 6. Conquest of Mexico. 7. Con- 
quest of Peru. 8. Invasion of Florida by Narvaez. 9. Expedi- 
tion of De Soto. 10. Marcos and Coronado. 11. Cabrillo. 12. 
Spanish exploration continuous. 

Founding of St. Augustine (1565). 

French Exploration and Settlement (1524-1609). — 1. Voyage of 
Verrazano (1524). 2. Voyages of Cartier. 3. Ribaut's settlement 
in Carolina. 4. Laudonniere's colony in Florida; massacre by Menen- 
dez. 5. Revenge of De Gourgues. 6. Port Royal settled (1605). 
7. Founding of Quebec (1608). 8. War on the Iroquois; the result 
of Champlain's error. 

English Exploration and Settlement (1576-1588). — 1. Frobish- 
er's voyages (1576-1579). 2. Voyages and discoveries of Drake. 

3. Amadas and Barlowe. 4. The Roanoke settlements. 5. Defeat 
of the Armada (1588). 

IV. The North American Indian 

The Natives. — 1. A new race of men; why called Indians. 
2. How classified; names of nations. 3. The clan and the tribe. 

4. The half-civilized Indians. 5. The mound builders. 6. Physical 
and other characteristics. 7. Origin of the Indians. 8. Religion. 
9. Lack of domestic animals. 10. Occupations. 11. Clothing; food. 
12. Travel; trails. 13. Warfare. 14. Arts and names. 

V. Virginia, the First Permanent English Colony 

Virginia (1606-1676). — 1. The two Virginia companies (1606). 
2. The Jamestown colony (1607). 3. The first president; cause of 
unpopularity. 4. Captain John Smith; traditional character. 5. 
The " starving time." 6. Dale's laws. 7. Private property estab- 
lished; result. 8. The first American legislature (1619). 9. Negro 
slavery (1619). 10. Coming of women. 11. Indian massacres 
(1622 and 1644). 12. Made a royal province (1624). 13. Gover- 
nor Berkeley; Indian attacks (1675). 14. Bacon's Rebellion (1676) 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS xxxi 

VI. The New England Colonies (1620-1692) 

The Plymouth Company; the Council for New England. 

Plymouth Colony. — 1. The Pilgrims. 2. The Separatists in 
Holland; why they left. 3. Arrival in America (1620). 4. " May- 
flower Compact." 5. Relations with the Indians. 6. First Thanks- 
giving. 7. Common property. 

Massachusetts. — 1. Coming of the Puritans. 2. Massachusetts 
charter. 3. Boston settled (1630). 4. Union of church and state. 
5. Education. 6. Persecution of Quakers. 7. Salem witchcraft 
(1692). 

Connecticut. — 1. Beginnings of Connecticut. 2. " Fundamental 
Orders of Connecticut " (1639). 3. New Haven colony. 4. The 
Connecticut charter. 5. Pequot war (1637). 

Rhode Island. ^ 1. Teachings of Roger Williams. 2. Founding 
of Providence (1636). 3. Government of Providence. 4. Mrs. Anne 
Hutchinson. 5. Charters of Rhode Island. 6. Religious toleration. 

New Hampshire. — 1. Founding of Dover and Piscataqua (1623). 
2. Massachusetts claims territory. 3. Made a royal province (1679). 

Maine. — 1. French attempts at settlement; hostility of Argall. 

2. Early English stations. 3. Gorges receives territory. 4. An- 
nexed by Massachusetts. 

Development of New England. — 1. The United Colonies of New 
England; first union (1643). 2. King Philip's War (1675-1678). 

3. Massachusetts loses charter (1684). 4. Rule of Andros. 5. The 
revolution (1688) in England. 6. New charter of Massachusetts 
(1691). 

VII. The Middle Colonies 

New Netherland (1609-1664). — 1. Exploration by Henry Hud- 
son (1609). 2. Adrian Block. 3. Extent of New Netherland. 4. 
First settlements (1623). 5. Early Dutch governors. 6. The Pa- 
troons. 7. William Kieft. 8. Peter Stuyvesant. 9. Conquest of 
New Sweden (1655). 10. Conquest of New Netherland by the 
English (1664). 

New York (1664-1689). — 1. Governor Dongan. 2. Coming of 
Andros. 3. Leisler. 4. Rule of William III. 

New Jersey (1664-1702). — 1. Origin of name. 2. English set- 
tlers. 3. Quakers in West Jersey. 4. Penn's purchase of East 
Jersey. 5. Becomes a royal province (1702). 



xxxu TOPICAL ANALYSIS 

Pennsylvania (1681-1691). — 1. William Penn. 2. Boundaries 
of the province. 3. Founding of Philadelphia (1683). 4. Rela- 
tions vi^ith Indians. 5. Government. 6. Toleration. 

VIII. The Southern Colonies, Except Virginia 

Maryland (1634-1715). — 1. George Calvert; experiences in New- 
foundland and in Jamestown; disappointment and death. 2. His 
son Cecilius succeeds to his rights. 3. The charter of Maryland. 
4. Settlement at St. Mary's (1634). 5. Relations with Indians. 

6. Hostility of Virginia. 7. Trouble with Claiborne. 8. The as- 
sembly; Governor Leonard Calvert. 9. Rapid growth. 10. The 
Jesuit missionaries. 11. Invasion of Claiborne and Ingle. 12. 
Death of Governor Calvert. 13. Act of Toleration (1649). 14. The 
Puritans in power. 15. After the Restoration (1660). 16. Terri- 
torial losses. 

Delaware (1638-1691). — 1. Settlement by Peter Minuit (1638), 
under Swedish charter secured by Usselinx. 2. Conquered by Dutch 
(1655). 3. Taken by Duke of York. 4. Granted to William Penn 
(1681). 5. Given separate legislature. 

The Carolinas (1653-1729). — 1. The Carolina charter. 2. Vir- 
ginian settlers in Carolina; appointment of William Drummond. 

3. English settlers from Barbados. 4. Locke's Fundamental Con- 
stitution. 5. Beginnings of Charleston (1670). 6. Arrival of French 
and Scots. 7. Separation into two royal provinces (1729). 

Georgia (1733-1765). — 1. Imprisonment for debt; objects of 
Oglethorpe. 2. The Georgia charter. 3. Savannah founded (1733). 

4. A royal province (1751). 5. Slow growth of colony. 6. Arrival 
of Austrians, Italians, and French. 

IX. Survey of the English Colonies 

The Thirteen Colonies. — 1. Union of England and Scotland. 
2. English colonies after 1700. 3. Races represented. 

Colonial Government. — 1. Forms of government: charter, pro- 
prietary, and royal. 2. Unrepresented in Parliament. 3. Lords of 
Trade and Plantations. 4. The colonial governor. 5. The coun- 
cil. 6. The assembly. 7. Local government. 8. Colonial laws. 

Colonial Life. — 1. Houses. 2. Clothing. 3. Manufactures. 4. 
Agriculture. 5. Travel and communication. 6. Navigation Acts. 

7. Pirates. 8. Religion. 9. Education; printing; Boston News 
Letter (1704). 10. Amusements. 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS xxxiu 

X. New France and Louisiana (1615-1718) 

The French in North America. — 1. Missionary work in New 
France (Canada). 2. Captivity of Father Jogues, S.J. 3. Coming 
of Father Le Jeune, S.J. 4. The Huron mission. 5. Brebeuf and 
Lalemant. 6. Missions in New York. 7. Marquette and JoUet. 
8. La Salle; exploration of the Mississippi. 9. Extent of Louisiana 
and of Canada. 10. Last efforts of La Salle. 11. New Orleans 
settled (1718). 12. Coureurs de bois. 

XL The Intercolonial Wars 

King WiUiam's War (1689-1697). — 1. Cause. 2. Massacre of 
Lachine. 3. Massacre of Schenectady. 4. Salmon Falls and Port- 
land. 5. Siege of Quebec. 6. Treaty of Ryswick (1697). 

Queen Anne's War (1702-1713). — 1. Cause. 2. War in the 
South; destruction of Apalachee missions; the Tuscaroras move to 
New York. 3. Raid on Deerfield, Mass. 4. Capture of Port Royal. 
5. Treaty of Utrecht (1713) ; territorial changes. 

King George's War (1744-1748). — 1. Capture of Louisburg. 
2. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748); restoration of conquests. 

French in the Ohio Valley (1749-1753). — 1. French take posses- 
sion; build forts. 2. Protest of Dinwiddle; mission of Washington. 

French and Indian War (1754-1763). — 1. English driven from 
the Ohio. 2. Battle of Great Meadows. 3. Surrender of Fort Ne- 
cessity. 4. Albany Convention. 5. Braddock's expedition. 6. 
Other English failures of 1755. 7. Exile of Acadians. 8. Victories 
of Montcalm: Oswego, Fort William Henry, Ticonderoga. 9. Eng- 
lish take Louisburg and Fort Duquesne. 10. Fall of Quebec (1759). 
11. Capture of Montreal. 12. Terms of Peace. 

Proclamation of 1763. 

Pontiac's War (1763-1764). 

XII. Causes of the Revolutionary War 

The Stamp Act. — 1. Public debt of England. 2. Taxes and 
troops. 3. The Boston Instructions. 4. The Stamp Act passed 
(1765). 5. American Opposition. 6. Repeal of Stamp Act. 

Other Acts and Clashes. — 1. The Townshend Acts. 2. Legis- 
latures dissolved. 3. The Boston "Massacre." 4. Other collisions. 
5. Duty on tea retained. 6. "Boston Tea Party." 7. Intolerable 
Acts of 1774. 8. Parties in England and America. 



XXXIV TOPICAL ANALYSIS 

Organization. — 1. Committees of Correspondence. 2. First Con- 
tinental Congress (1774). 3. Arming and drilling. 

XIII. War in New England (1775-1776); Independence 
Declared (1776) 

The War in 1775-1776. — 1. Skirmish at Lexington (Apr. 19, 
1775); fight at Concord. 2. Capture of Ticonderoga. 3. Meeting 
of second Continental Congress; Washington appointed commander 
in chief. 4. Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775). 5. Washington 
in command. 6. Invasion of Canada. 7. England hires foreign 
soldiers. 8. British driven from Boston (Mar. 17, 1776). 

Progress toward Independence. — 1. Parliament unfriendly. 
2. Expulsion of royal governors. 3. Victories in the Carolinas. 
4. Colonies become states. 5. Independence declared (July 4, 1776). 

6. The Declaration of Independence. 

XIV. War in the Middle States (1776-1778) 

New York and New Jersey. — 1. Importance of New York. 2. 
Battle of Long Island (Aug. 27, 1776). 3. Loss of the city of New 
York. 4. Retreat across New Jersey. 5. Capture of Hessians at 
Trenton. 6. Financial difficulties. 7. Robert Morris. 8. Battle of 
Princeton (Jan. 3, 1777). 

Struggle for the Hudson (1777). — 1. British plans. 2. Battle 
of Oriskany. 3. Defeat of St. Leger. 4. Burgoyne's invasion. 5. 
Battle of Bennington. 6. Burgoyne's surrender (Oct. 17, 1777). 

Struggle for the Delaware (1777-1778). — 1. Howe's blunder. 2. 
Battle of Chad's Ford, or Brandywine. 3. Battle of Germantown 
(Oct. 1777). 4. Washington at Valley Forge. 5. British abandon 
Philadelphia. 6. Battle of Monmouth Court House (June, 1778). 

7. Extent of American success in campaign of 1777-1778. 

XV. The Winning of the West (1778-1779) 
Foreign Relations. — 1. The French alliance (February, 1778). 
2. Private assistance. 3. Spain and her colonies friendly. 4. At- 
titude of Holland. 5. Attitude of Canadians. 6. Sympathy of 
the French in Illinois. 

Clark's Campaign. — 1. Expedition of George Rogers Clark. 2. 
Capture of Kaskaskia (July, 1778). 3. Father Pierre Gibault. 
4. Recruiting the French. 5. British occupy Vincennes. 6. Fran- 
cois Vigo aids Clark. 7. Capture of Vincennes by Clark; the march; 
the results. 8. Importance of Clark's campaign. 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS xxxv 

XVI. War on the Sea (1775-1783) 

Naval Battles. — 1. The men of Machias, Maine. 2, The first 
sea fight (1775). 3. Other exploits of the O'Briens. 4. Congress 
acts (October, 1775). 5. The first fleet; Esek Hopkins commander. 
6. Captain Barry's first victory. 7. His capture of armed ships in 
the Delaware. 8. Barry's victories in the Alliance. 9. Career of 
John Paul Jones; victory of the Bonhomme Richard; treachery of 
Captain Landais. 10. Privateers. 11. Last battle of the war. 

XVII. War in the South (1778-1781); Independence Won 

War in Georgia. — 1. British capture Savannah (December, 1778). 
2. Americans and French repulsed at Savannah. 

Events in the North. — 1. Capture of Stony Point by Gen. An- 
thony Wayne (June, 1779). 2. Treason of Arnold: capture of 
Andre (1780). 3. Signs of discontent. 

War in the Carolinas. — 1. Loss of Charleston (May 12, 1780). 
2. Defeat of Gates at Camden (August, 1780). 3. Victory at King's 
Mountain (Oct. 7, 1780). 4. Greene supersedes Gates. 5. British 
defeat at Cowpens (1781). 6. Battle of Guilford (1781); Cornwallis 
withdraws to Virginia. 7. Battle at Hobkirk's Hill. 8. Battle of 
Eutaw Springs. 9. Ability of General Greene. 

War in Virginia. — 1. Attempt of Cornwallis to crush Lafayette. 
2. The French army under Rochambeau. 3. De Grasse collecting 
men and money. 4. French armies and Washington at Yorktown. 

5. De Grasse wins naval engagement and blockades Cornwallis. 

6. Siege of Yorktown. 7. Surrender of Cornwallis (Oct. 19, 1781). 
Independence Won. — 1. Independence acknowledged by George 

III. 2. Boundaries of the United States. 3. The Newburg Ad- 
dresses. 4. British evacuate New York. 5. Washington surrenders 
command to Congress. 

XVIII. The Critical Era (1783-1789) 

Under the Articles of Confederation. — 1. The situation in 1783. 
2. Controversies between states. 3. Shays's Rebellion (1786-87). 
4. The Annapolis convention (1786). 5. A helpless Congress. 6. A 
defective constitution. 7. Land cessions of states. 8. Movement 
of population. 9. Ordinance of 1787; slavery prohibited in the 
Northwest Territory. 



xxxvi TOPICAL ANALYSIS 

The Federal Constitution. — 1. The Constitutional Convention 
(1787); leading delegates in attendance. 2. The Federalist. 3. The 
Constitution adopted. 4. Outline of Constitution. 5. Federalists 
and Anti-Federalists. 6. Washington the first President (1789). 

XIX. Beginnings of the Catholic Church in the United 

States 

Catholics in America. — 1. The missionary life. 2. Growth of 
toleration, 3. Right Reverend John Carroll made Prefect Apostolic. 
4. First Catholic Church in the city of New York. 5. Father Car- 
roll appointed bishop. 6. Sulpician priests arrive in the United 
States. 7. Diocese of Baltimore in 1790. 8. The First Synod 
(opened Nov. 7, 1791). 9. A CathoHc church dedicated in Boston. 
10. Mission to the Indians of Maine. 11. Catholics in the West. 
12. The Church in the South. 13. New Sees (1808). 14. Death 
of Archbishop Carroll (Dec. 3, 1815). 15. Washington's letter to 
his Catholic countrymen. 



XX. Government by the Federalists 

The Country in 1789. — 1. The people and their industries. 2. 
City life. 3. Rural life. 4. Shops and trade. 

George Washington, President (1789-1797). — 1. Organizing the 
government; the Cabinet. 2. The tariff. 3. Funding the public 
debt. 4. Assumption of state debts, 5. Removal of the capital 
to Philadelphia (1790), and Washington (1800). 6. Effect of Ham- 
ilton's measures. 7. The Whisky Insurrection. 8. The United 
States Bank. 9. The mint. 10. Ten constitutional amendments. 
11. New states admitted; change in the flag. 12. Indian troubles; 
Wayne's victory. 13. Washington and Adams reelected. 14. Proc- 
lamation of Neutrality (1793). 15. English seize American ships. 
16. Jay's treaty (1795) with England. 17. Treaty with Spain. 
18. Farewell Address of V/ashington (1796). 

John Adams, President (1797-1801). — 1. Election of Adams 
and Jefferson. 2. X, Y, Z affair. 3. Preparing for war with 
France. 4. Naval war with France. 5. Alien and Sedition Acts. 
6. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (1798, 1799). 7. Death of 
Washington (Dec. 14, 1799). 8. Federalists defeated; election of 
Jefferson and Burr. 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS xxxvii 

XXI. Government by the Republicans (Democratic- 

Republicans), 1801-1817 

Thomas Jefferson, President (1801-1809). — 1. Jeflferson and the 
civil service. 2. Purchase of Louisiana (1803). 3. Lewis and Clark 
expedition. 4. Jefferson's policy. 5. The Twelfth Amendment 
(1804; note, page 249). 

6. Growth of the Republic (1790-1805); new states. 7. Indus- 
trial progress; Whitney's cotton gin (1793). 8. Social and legisla- 
tive reforms. 

9. Jefferson reelected. 10. The Burr-Hamilton duel (1804). 
11. Burr's project; his arrest and trial. 12. Fulton's steamboat 
(1807). 13. War with TripoH. 14. England and France at war. 
15. Napoleon's decrees; British orders in council. 16. The Leopard 
and the Chesapeake. 17. The long embargo (1807-1809). 

James Madison, President (1809-1817). — 1. Non-Intercourse 
Act. 2. The President and the Little Belt. 3. War declared against 
England (1812). 

War of 1812. — 4. Causes; impressment, search and seizure of 
our ships. 5. State of the nation. 6. American plans. 7. Surren- 
der of Detroit. 8. Massacre at Raisin River. 9. Battle of Lake 
Erie; result. 10. Battle of the Thames. 11. Fighting along the 
Niagara (1814). 12. Capture of Washington. 13. British attack on 
Baltimore; composition of Star Spangled Banner. 14. Battles of 
Lake Champlain and of Plattsburg (Sept. 11, 1814); result of victory. 
15. Sea fights. 16. Treaty of Ghent (December, 1814). 17. Re- 
sults of the war. 18. The Hartford Convention. 19. Battle of New 
Orleans (Jan. 8, 1815). 

XXII. Growth of the West; Era of Good Feeling 

The West after 1815. — 1. Land policy of the government. 2. 
Routes to the Northwest. 3. Westward movement of population. 
4. The log cabin. 5. Life of the pioneer. 6. Political importance 
of the West; new states. 7. Charter of the second United States 
Bank (1816). 8. Rise of manufactures. 9. A protective tariff (1824); 
the "American system." 10. Signs of prosperity. 

James Monroe, President (1817-1825). — 1. Election and reelec- 
tion of Monroe. 2. Acquisition of Florida (1819). 3. The slavery 
question: slavery in the North, and in the South; cause of its growth ; 
the balancing of slave and free states. 4. The Missouri Compro- 



xxxvm TOPICAL ANALYSIS 

raise (1820). 5. The Monroe Doctrine (1823); warning to Russia; 
warning to the Holy Alliance. 6. Political parties; House of Repre- 
sentatives chooses President (1824). 



XXIII. Adams and The Jacksonian Epoch 

John Quincy Adams, President (1825-1829). — 1. The charge 
against Adams; his character. 2. An unsuccessful administration. 
3. New parties: Whigs and Democrats. 4. The tariff of 1828. 
5. Election of Jackson. 

Andrew Jackson, President (1829-1837). — 1. Inauguration of 
Jackson. 2. The spoils system. 3. Nullification: Southern view 
presented by Hayne and Calhoun; Northern view presented by 
Webster. 4. South Carolina's ordinance of nullification. 5. The 
Compromise of 1833. 6. Jackson reelected. 7. Jackson opposes 
United States Bank; removal of government deposits therefrom. 
8. Treatment of the Indians. 9. Payment of the national debt. 
10. The surplus revenue of 1837. 11. The "Specie Circular." 
12. Election of 1836. 

Martin Van Buren, President (1837-1841). — 1. Panic of 1837. 
2. The subtreasury. 3. The Patriot War in Canada. 4. The Abo- 
lition movement. 5. The election of 1840; the candidates; the log- 
cabin campaign. 



XXIV. Development, Immigration, and Reform (1820-1840) 

Transportation. — 1. National turnpike. 2. Early canals. 3. 
The first railways. 4. Development of steamboats; the Savannah 
crosses the Atlantic (1819). 

Other Changes. — 1. Domestic trade. 2. The factory system. 

3. The reaper and other inventions. 4. Improvement in education. 
5. American literature: poets, novelists, historians. 6. Immigra- 
tion and the growth of cities and towns. 7. Labor organizations. 

Reform Movements. — 1. Dorr's Rebellion. 2. The Anti-Rent 
War. 3. An epoch of reform; hospitals; prisons; communism. 

4. Spiritual unrest: camp meetings; the Adventists; the Mormons. 
Mormonism. — 1. Joseph Smith. 2. The Book of Mormon. 3. 

Mormon church: in Ohio, in Missouri, and at Nauvoo, 111. 4. Smith 
teaches polygamy. 5. His death (1844). 6. Removal under Brig- 
ham Young to Utah. 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS xxxix 

Anti-Catholic Feeling (1834). — 1. Destruction of Urauline Con- 
vent, Charlestown, Massachusetts, by a mob. 2. Denounced by 
citizens in Faneuil Hall. 3. Movement not confined to Boston. 
4. Maria Monk. 



XXV. Expansion and Dissension (1840-1852) 

William Henry Harrison, President (1841). — 1. Whigs elect 
President and Congress. 2. Death of President Harrison (April 4, 
1841). 

John Tyler, President (1841-1845). — 1. Political sympathies of 
Tyler with Democrats. 2. Resignation of Cabinet, except Webster. 
3. Webster-Ashburton treaty. 

Texas. — 1. Longing for Texas (1819-1835); James Long; Moses 
and Stephen Austin; civil war in Mexico; Texas organizes a govern- 
ment. 2. War between Texas and Mexico (1835-1836); causes; 
Americans assist Texans; Texans declare independence; massacre 
at the Alamo; Houston wins battle of San Jacinto (April, 1836); 
Mexico unable to win back Texas. 3. Democrats elect Polk Presi- 
dent. 4. Texas annexed to the United States (1845). 

Oregon Country. — 1. United States succeeds to rights of Spain. 

2. Claim derived from discovery of Captain Gray (1792). 3. Rus- 
sian claims; effect of Monroe Doctrine; England and United States 
sole claimants. 4. Early Spanish and English exploration. 5. 
Joint occupation. 6. The Hudson Bay Company. 7. Many Ameri- 
can settlers arrive in Oregon (1843). 8. Settlement of Oregon ques- 
tion (1846). 

Anti-Catholic outbreak in Philadelphia (1844). 

James K. Polk, President (1845-1849); the War with Mexico. — 
1. Causes: opinion of John Quincy Adams; opinion of Hubert Howe 
Bancroft; American claims against Mexico. 2. First aggressions. 

3. Message of President Polk; results. 4. Gen. Taylor's campaign 
on the Rio Grande: battle of Palo Alto (May 8, 1846); battle of 
Resaca de la Palma; siege of Monterey; battle of Buena Vista 
(Feb. 22-23, 1847). 5. Gen. Scott's campaign from Vera Cruz: 
occupation of Vera Cruz (March, 1847); battle of Cerro Gordo; 
occupation of Puebla; battles of Churubusco, Molino del Rey, and 
Chapultepec; occupation of Mexico city (Sept. 13, 1847). 6. Col. 
Kearny in New Mexico. 7. Conquest of California. 8. Treaty of 
Guadalupe Hidalgo. 



xl TOPICAL ANALYSIS 

Political Issues. — 1. The Wilmot Proviso. 2. Whigs elect Gen- 
eral Taylor President (1846). 3. Rise of Free Soil party. 

California. — 1. Growth of California missions. 2. Seculariza- 
tion of missions (,1833). 3. Discovery of gold in California (1848): 
Sutter and Marshall partnership; tidings of the discovery. 4. The 
routes to California: Cape Horn, Panama, overland. 5. Rush of 
the forty-niners. 6. Formation of a state government; new states 
previously admitted. 

Zachary Taylor, President (1849-1850). — 1. Antislavery agita- 
tion. 2. Demands of the South. 3. The senators from California. 
4. Clay's Compromise of 1850 (Omnibus Bill). 5. Death of Presi- 
dent Taylor. 

Millard Fillmore, President (1850-1853). — 1. Compromise of 
1850 enacted. 2. The Fugitive Slave Law. 3. Enforcing Fugitive 
Slave Law. 4. Uncle Tom's Cabin. 5. Death of Clay, Webster, 
and Calhoun. 6. Democrats elect Pierce President (1852). 

XXVI. Effort to Extend Slavery 

Franklin Pierce, President (1853-1857). — 1. Desire to acquire 
Cuba: Ostend Manifesto. 2. Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854); results 
of its passage. 3. The struggle for Kansas: Emigrant- Aid Society; 
the "Blue Lodges" and "Border Ruffians;" Kansas Free-Soilers; 
Topeka convention; the "Wakarusa War; " attitude of President 
Pierce; assault on Charles Sumner; the Lecompton constitution. 
4. Personal Liberty Bills. 5. The Underground Railroad. 6. The 
Know-Nothing party. 7. Rise of the new Republican party (1856). 
8. Defeat of Fremont; the sign of the cross. 9. Democrats elect 
Buchanan President (1856). 

James Buchanan, President (1857-1861). — 1. Dred Scott de- 
cision (1857). 2. Lincoln-Douglas debates (1858). 3. The John 
Brown raid (1859); career and object of Brown; injury to Union 
cause. 4. Election of 1860; split in Democratic party. 5. Lincoln 
chosen President by Republicans. 

XXVII. Survey of the Period between 1840 and 1860 

The People. — 1. Increase in population. 2. Irish and German 
immigrants. 3. Admission of new states. 4. Education. 5. Jour- 
nalism. 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS xli 

Industry, Invention, and Trade. — 1. Petroleum; known to 
French missionary; development of the oil industry. 2. The tele- 
graph. 3. The sewing machine. 4, The reaper. 5. Vulcanized 
rubber. 6. Other inventions and discoveries. 7. First World's 
Fair in America. 8. Improvement in transportation. 9. The At- 
lantic cable. 10. America in the Orient. 

The North and the South compared. 

XXVIII AND XXIX. The Civil War 

Close of Buchanan's Term (1860-1861). — !. Secession of South 
Carolina (Dec. 20, 1860). 2. Causes of secession. 3. The Confed- 
erate States of America; capital; Jefferson Davis chosen provisional 
president. 4. President Buchanan's attitude. 5. Firing on the 
Star of the West. 

Abraham Lincoln, President (1861-1865). — 1. Lincoln's atti- 
tude toward slavery and secession. 2. Bombardment of Fort Sum- 
ter (Apr. 12, 1861); surrender of Fort Sumter; effect. 3. Lincoln's 
call for volunteers; awakening of the North; preparations of the 
South. 4. The struggle in Missouri. 5. Battle of Bull Run (July 
21, 1861). 6. McClellan in command of Union army; his victories 
in western Virginia. 

Peninsular Campaign (1862). — 1. Union army lands at Fort 
Monroe. 2. Victories of "Stonewall" Jackson; results. 3. Battle 
of Seven Pines. 4. The Seven Days' Fight (June 26 to July 1, 1862). 

5. Second battle of Bull Run (Aug. 29-30, 1862); activity of "Stone- 
wall " Jackson; death of General Philip Kearney. 

First Invasion of the North (1862), — 1. The succession of Con- 
federate victories. 2. Lee's army in Maryland. 3. General Jack- 
son captures Harper's Ferry. 4. McClellan defeats Lee at Antietam 
(Sept. 16-17, 1862). 5. Battle of Fredericksburg (Dec. 13, 1862). 

6. Battle of Chancellorsville (May 2-4, 1863). 7. Result of Con- 
federate victories. 

Second Invasion of the North (1863). — 1. Lee drives Union forces 
from Shenandoah Valley. 2. Invades Maryland and Pennsylvania. 
3. Cavalry skirmish at Hanover, Pa. 4. Battle of Gettysburg (July 
1-3, 1863). 5. Lee's retreat to Virginia. 

Opening the Mississippi (1862-1863). — 1. Capture of New 
Orleans (Apr. 25, 1862). 2. Other victories on the Lower Missis- 
sippi. 3. In the north, Grant takes Forts Henry and Donelson, 
(February, 1862). 4. Battle of Shiloh (Apr. 6-7, 1862). 5. Gen- 



xlii TOPICAL ANALYSIS 

eral Pope takes Island No. 10. 6. Bragg's raid; battle of Perry- 
ville. 7. Battle of Murfreesboro (Dec. 31, 1862-Jan. 2, 1863). 8. 
The war in Arkansas. 9. Capture of Vicksburg by Grant. 10. Bat- 
tle of Chickamauga (September, 1863). 11. Battles of Lookout 
Mountain and Missionary Ridge (November, 1863). 

Emancipation. — 1. Compensated emancipation offered to Border 
States. 2. Military emancipation, effective Jan. 1, 1863. 3. Forma- 
tion of West Virginia. 4. Reconstruction of Tennessee. 5. The 
Louisiana Plan. 6. The Thirteenth Amendment (December, 1865). 
7. The Draft. 8. Negro soldiers accepted (1863). 

The Blockade and the Navy (1861-1865). — 1. Lincoln's proclama- 
tion of blockade (1861). 2. Running the blockade. 3. The Trent 
affair (1861). 4. The Confederate navy. 5. The Alabama and other 
cruisers; services of Captain Bulloch. 6. U. S. Navy along the 
Atlantic coast. 7. U. S. Navy on inland waters. 8. Battle between 
Monitor and Merrimac (March, 1862). 9. Destruction of the Albe- 
marle by Lieutenant Cashing. 

Foreign Relations. — 1. Relations with Great Britain. 2. Rela- 
tions with France. 3. Services of Rev. Henry Ward Beecher and 
Bishop Hughes. 4. Friendship of Russia. 

War in the West (1864). — 1. Grant made commander in chief 
(February, 1864); headquarters with Army of Potomac. 2. Sherman 
commands armies in West. 3. Red River expedition; object and 
result. 4. The Atlanta campaign; Sherman forces Johnston toward 
Atlanta; Hood supersedes Johnston, and is defeated in three battles; 
Sherman enters Atlanta (Sept. 2, 1864). 5. Hood attacks communi- 
cations of Sherman; is badly defeated by Thomas at Nashville (Dec. 
15-16, 1864). 6. Sherman's march from Atlanta to the sea (Nov. 15 
to Dec. 10, 1864); eastern Confederate States cut in twain. 

War in the East (1864). — 1. Grant's advance on Richmond; 
battles of the Wilderness (May 4-6, 1864), Spottsylvania Court 
House, and Cold Harbor; Union losses. 2. Siege of Petersburg. 
3. Washington threatened by General Early. 4. Devastation of 
Shenandoah Valley. 5. Sheridan's qualifications; battle of Cedar 
Creek (October, 1864) ; Washington made safe. 6. Lincoln reelected 
President, November, 1864. 

The War in 1865. — 1. Sheridan's victory at Five Forks. 2. Lee 
leaves Richmond. 3. Sheridan gets in front of Lee. 4. Lee sur- 
surrenders to Grant at Appomattox (April 9, 1865). 5. Sherman 
marches through Georgia and the Carolinas; what was accomplished; 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS xliii 

Johnston surrenders to Sherman (Apr. 26, 1865). 6. General Taylor 
surrenders armies in Alabama and Mississippi. 7. Trans-Mississippi 
armies surrendered by Gen. Kirby Smith. 8. Capture of Jefferson 
Davis. 9. Assassination of Lincoln (Apr. 14, 1865); Andrew John- 
son becomes President. 

Observations on the War. — 1. Magnitude of the war. 2. 
Strength of the respective armies. 3. Cost of the war. 4. Condi- 
tions in the South. 5. War money. 6. National banks. 7. Mili- 
tary prisons. 8. Political parties. 9. Personal liberty; the im- 
portant question to Lincoln was to preserve the Union. 

XXX. Era of Reconstruction (1862-1877) 

1. Plans of Reconstruction. 2. Presidential reconstruction under 
Lincoln. 

Andrew Johnson, President (1861-1865). — 1. Presidential recon- 
struction under Johnson. 2. Congressional reconstruction. 3. Bills 
of Congress vetoed by Johnson. 4. Joint Committee on Recon- 
struction. 5. Impeachment of Johnson (1867); Senate fails to con- 
vict the President. 6. Reconstruction Acts of 1867. 7. Military 
government of the South. 8. Carpetbaggers — negro misrule; illit- 
eracy of officials. 9. The Ku-Klux. 10. Election of 1868; Repub- 
licans elect Grant. 

Ulysses S. Grant, President (1869-1877). — 1. Attitude of Presi- 
dent Grant. 2. Fifteenth Amendment, March, 1870. 3. Agitation 
for home rule in the South. 4. Rise of Liberal Republicans. 5. 
Rebellion in Cuba; case of the Virginius. 6. Reelection of Grant 
(1872). 7. Character of Grant. 8. Credit Mobilier. 9. Corrupt 
officials; impeachment of Secretary Belknap. 10. The "salary 
grab." 11. Disputed presidential election of 1876; result. 

President Hayes (Republicaji). — Union troops withdrawn from 
South; end of reconstruction (1877). 

Foreign Relations (1867-1872). — 1. Purchase of Alaska (1867). 
2. French leave Mexico (1867). 3. Treaty of Washington (1871); 
settlement of Alabama claims (1872); the arbitrators. 

XXXI. Growth and Economic Development (1860-1919) 

Economic Development. — 1. Discovery of gold and silver. 
2. Transportation across the continent; the stagecoach; the pony ex- 
press; the telegraph; transportation of freight; the Pacific Railroad. 



xliv TOPICAL ANALYSIS 

3. Railroads of the United States; benefits of railway construction; 
marvelous growth of the West. 4. Interstate Commerce Act. 
5. Homestead law. 6. Settling the prairie. 7. Cattle raising. 

8. The Indians. 9. Father De Smet, S.J. 10. Indian discon- 
tent; the Modocs (1872); the Custer massacre (1876). 

11. The South after reconstruction. 12. Mechanical progress; 
the airplane. 13. Industrial development. 

Growth of Population. — 1. Immigration: Irish; German; immi- 
gration after 1890. 2. New states admitted. 3. Census of 1910. 

4. Catholic population; Catholic education. 



XXXII. Industrial and Other Domestic Affairs 

1. Panic of 1873. 2. Centennial Exposition (1876). 

Rutherford B. Hayes, President (1877-1881). — 1. Strikes of 
1877. 2. Specie Payment Act (1879). 3. Silver Purchase Acts. 4. 
Chinese immigration. 5. Election of 1880; Republicans elect Gar- 
field and Arthur. 

James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur (1881-1885). — 1. Assas- 
sination of President Garfield (1881); Arthur becomes President. 
2. Legislation against polygamy. 3. Civil Service Law of 1883. 
4. The new navy. 5. Cleveland elected President by the Demo- 
crats (1884). 

Grover Cleveland, President (1885-1889). — !. Prohibition of 
alien contract labor. 2. Creation of Interstate Commerce Com- 
mission. 3. Bureau of Labor established. 4. Presidential Succes- 
sion Act (1886). 5. Statue of "Liberty Enlightening the World." 
6. Republicans elect Harrison President (1888). 

Benjamin Harrison, President (1889-1893). — 1. Dependent pen- 
sion law (1890). 2. McKinley Tariff Act (1890). 3. Sherman Anti- 
Trust Law (1890). 4. Foreign affairs: Italians in Nev/ Orleans; 
American sailors in Chile. 5. Cleveland again elected President by 
the Democrats (1892). 6. General introduction of the Australian 
ballot. 

Grover Cleveland, President (1893-1897). — 1. Panic of 1893. 
2. Congress convoked in special session. 3. Repeal of Sherman 
Silver Act. 4. The Income Tax Law; decision of U. S. Supreme 
Court (1895). 5. Bering Sea dispute. 6. Samoa and Hawaii. 7, 
McKinley elected President by the Republicans (1896). 

President McKinley. - The Dingley Tariff Act. 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS xlv 

XXXIII. War with Spain and Later Events (1898-1912) 

William McKinley, President (1897-1901); War with Spain 
(1898). — 1. Discontent in Cuba; rebellion breaks out (1895). 2. 
Attempt of Spain to put down revolt; policy of General Weyler; 
blunder of Spanish minister. 3. Causes of war. 4. Destruction of 
the Maine (Feb. 15, 1898). 5. Congress acknowledges independ- 
ence of Cuba. 6. Conquest of the Philippines; Dewey's victory 
(May 1, 1898). 7. Cervera's fleet blockaded; Hobson's attempt. 
8. Battles of El Caney and San Juan. 9. Destruction of Cervera's 
fleet. 10. General Toral surrenders Spanish army. 11. General 
Miles occupies Porto Rico. 12. Treaty of Paris (1898). 

Consequences of War with Spain. — 1. Annexation of Hawaiian 
Islands (July, 1898). 2. Cuba; the Piatt Amendment; American 
army leaves island (May 20, 1902). 3. Porto Rico. 4. Philippines: 
war with followers of Aguinaldo; capture of Aguinaldo; govern- 
ment and people of Philippines. 

Other Events. — 1. The Hague Agreements. 2. "Pious Fund of 
the Californias." 3. Holland's submarine (1898). 4. McKinley re- 
elected (1900). 5. Assassination of President McKinley (1901); 

6. Theodore Roosevelt becomes President (Sept. 14, 1901). 
Theodore Roosevelt, President (1901-1909). — 1. Chinese exclu- 
sion act extended to insular possessions (1902). 2. Irrigation of 
arid lands. 3. Strike of anthracite mine workers. 4. The Panama 
Canal: begun by French company; Congress empowered President 
to buy out company and complete canal; offer to Colombia rejected; 
secession of Panama; independence of Panama acknowledged 
(1903); concessions secured by the United States. 5. Importance of 
the canal. 6. Roosevelt elected President by the Republicans (1904). 

7. Oklahoma admitted. 8. The Pure Food Act. 9. Conservation 
policy of Roosevelt. 10. Great fire in San Francisco. 11. Repub- 
licans elect Taft President (1908). 

William Howard Taft, President (1909-1913). — 1. The Payne- 
Aldrich Tariff Bill; effect on unity of RepubHcans. 2. Legal warfare 
against "trusts." 3. Postal savings banks (1910). 4. Domestic 
parcel post. 5- Admission of Arizona and New Mexico (1912). 6. 
Democrats win Congressional election. 7. Division in Republican 
ranks. 8. Woodrow Wilson elected President by the Democrats 
(1912). 

Recent Constitutional Development. — 1. The Initiative and Ref- 
erendum. 2. Municipal government; the commission plan. 3. The 



xlvi TOPICAL ANALYSIS 

recall. 4. Direct primaries. 5. Woman suffrage. 6. Sixteenth 
Amendment; income tax. 7. Seventeenth Amendment; popular 
election of senators. 8. Eighteenth Amendment; prohibition. 

XXXIV. Wilson's Administration; War with Germany 

Woodrow Wilson, President (1913- ). — 1. The Underwood 
Tariff. 2. The income tax. 3. The Federal Reserve Act. 4. An- 
archy in Mexico; Americans occupy Vera Cruz; A, B, C, envoys at 
Niagara Falls, Canada; "watchful waiting" policy of President. 
5. Beginning of World War; sudden attack by Central Powers. 6. 
Our controversy with Germany; sinking of Lusitania; Secretary of 
State Bryan resigns. 7. President Wilson reelected. 

War with Germany. — 1. The break with Germany; cause. 2. 
Arming American merchant vessels. 3. President recommends war. 
4. Declaration of war by Congress (April 6, 1917). 5. President's 
Flag Day address. 6. Establishment of Reserve Officers' Training 
camps. 7. Registration for military service, June 5, 1917. 8. 
American Expeditionary Force in France. 9. American Red Cross; 
Y. M. C. A.; Knights of Columbus. 10. The situation in Europe 
early in 1918. 11. The Blockade. 12. The participation of the 
United States. 13. Unity of command. 

American Victories. — 1. Cantigny. 2. Belleau Wood. 3. Vaux. 
4. Soissons. 5. Chateau-Thierry. 6. Other American successes. 7. 
Great American victory at St. Mihiel (Sept. 12, 1918). 8. Our suc- 
cesses in the Argonne Forest. 9. Americans cut German main line 
of communications. 

Armistice signed Nov. 11, 1918; terms of the armistice. 

Conditions in the United States. — 1. Shipbuilding during the 
war. 2. Government control of railways. 3. Expenditures. 

Conference at Versailles (begins in January, 1919). 



INDEX 



Abercromby, General, 146. 

Abnaki Indians, 141. 

Abolition movement, 293, 329. 

Acadia, settled, 38, 40; renamed Nova 

Scotia, 140; yielded to Great Britain, 

141; expulsion of Acadians, 145-140. 
Adams, Charles Francis, 323, .380. 
.\dams, John, in Revolution, 170, 213; 

and Catholics, 228; Vice President, 

224; President, 245-249, 256. • 
Adams, John Quincy, President, 283-280. 
Adams, Samuel, 155, 159. 
Africa, voyages around, 7. 
.\griculture in the colonies, 123. 
Aguinaldo, 437, 441. 
.\irbrake, Westinghouse, 417. 
."Virplane, invented, 418. 
Aix-la-Chapello, treaty, 141. 
Alabama, admitted, 274; secedes, 355. 
Alabama, the, 380, 408. 
.\lamance, battle, 155. 
.\lamo, battle, 311-312. 
Alaska, purchase, 407. 
Albany, settled, 87, 88; charter, 94. 
.\lbany convention, 144. 
.\lbemarle, Duke of, 113. 
Albemarle, the, 382. 
.\lbemarle colony, 113-114. 
Algonquin Indians, 45. 
Alien and Sedition Acts, 247-248. 
Allatoona, battle, 385. 
Allen, Ethan, 164. 
Alliance, the, 200-201. 
Allies in Great War, 468. 
Amadas and Barlowe, explorers, 42. 
Amendments, constitutional, 222; first 

ten, 241; Twelfth Amendment, 249; 

Thirteenth, 390; Fourteenth, 309-400, 

401; Fifteenth, 403; Sixteenth, 455; 

Seventeenth, 455; Eighteenth, 455. 
America named, 25. 
American Protective Association (A.P.A.), 

339. 
American Red Cross, 465-466. 
"American System," 275. 
Americus Vespucius, explorer, 25. 
Amusements in colonies, 127. 
Anaesthetics, discovered, 348-349.' 
Anderson, INIajor, 853, 355, 357, 358. 
Anderson\dlle prison, 395. t 

Andrg, Major, capture, 207-208. 
Andros, Sir Edmund, 83-84, 94. ' ^ 
Annapolis, Nova Scotia, 33, 140, 146. y 
Annapolis convention, 216-217. 
Annexation, of Louisiana, 252; Florida, 

277; Oregon, 315; California, etc., 322; 

xlv: 



(Jadsdeu Purchase, 323; Alaska, 407; 
Hawaiian Islands, 439; Porto Ricd. 
Guam, and the Philippines, 439; 
Panama Canal Zone, 447; Virgin 
Islands, 441. 

Anti-Catholic feeling, .306-307, 315-316. 

Antietam, battle, 364-365. 

.\nti-Federalist3, 223. 

Anti-Rent War, 304. 

Anti-Slaverv Society, 293. 

A. P. A., 339. 

Appomattox, surrender at, 390. 

Argall, Samuel, destroys French settle- 
ment, 91. 

Arizona, admitted to Union, 450; equal 
suffrage granted, 455. 

Arkansas, admitted to Union, 328; se- 
cedes from Union, 358; wrested from 
Confederacy, 371; woman suffrage in, 
455. 

.\rmada, defeated, 44. 

Armistice, 474-475. 

.\rnold. Gen. Benedict, 164, 160, 181; 
treason of, 207. 

.\rthur, Chester A., 425, 426. 

Articles of Confederation, 217-219. 

Assembly, in colonial government, 120. 

Assumption of state debts, 238-239. 

Astor, John Jacob, 313. 

Astoria, settled, 313. 

Atchison, Kaus., settled, 337. 

Atlanta, in Civil War, 383, 385. 

Atlantic telegraph cable, 349-350. 

Aubry, Rev. Nicholas, 81. 

Austin, Moses and Stephen, 310. 

Australian ballot, 431. 

Austria-Hungary, allied with Germany, 
460; surrenders, 474. 

Automobiles, 418. 

Ayllon, explorer, 27. 

Aztecs, 48. 

Bacon's rebellion, 62-63. 

Badin, Rev. Stephen, 229. 

Bahamas, discovered, 10. 

Balboa, Vasco Nuiiez ds, 26. 

Baltimore, in colonial times, 118; diocese, 

228; attacked by British, 205. 
Baltimore, Lord, 101-111. 
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, 207-298, 

424. 
Bancroft, George, author, 302. 
Bank of the United States, 240, 201; 

Second, 274-275, 290, 232. 
Banks, Federal Reserve, 458; national, 

394-395; state, 274. 290-292. 



xlviii 



INDEX 



Banks, General, 372, 384. 

Barry, Commodore John. l'J8-201, 246- 

247. 
Bartholdi, M., 42S. 
Barton, Clara, 465. 
Baton Rouge, taken, 368. 
Bear Flag Republic, 322. 
Beauregard, Gen. P. G. T., 357, 360, 387. 
Beecher, Henry Ward, 383. 
Belknap, Secretary, 405-406. 
Belleau Wood, battle, 471. 
Bell telephone, 417. 
Bennington, battle, 182. 
Benton, Thomas H., 314, 315. 
Bering Sea dispute, 432. 
Berkeley, Governor, 62. 
Berkeley, Lord, 95. 
Bienville, C61eron de, 142. 
Bienville, founder of New Orleans, 136. 
Big Black River, battle, 372. 
Bill of Rights, in Federal Constitution, 

241. 
Biloxi, settled, 135. 
Birney, James G., 293. 
Bladensburg, battle, 205. 
Blaine, James G., 427, 430. 
Blair, Francis P., Jr., 3.59, 390. 
Bland-AUison Act, 424. 
Block, Adrian, 87. , ■ ^, . 

Blockade, in Civil War, 378-379; in Great 

War, 468-469. 
Blue Lodges, 337. 
Bobadilla, Governor, 22. 
Bolsbeviki, 468. 
Bonhomtne Richard, the, 202. 
Boone, Daniel, 190, 195, 272. 
Booth, John Wilkes, 392. 
Border States in Civil War, 359. 
Boston, settled, 70; first General Court, 
71; after 1700, 117; in Revolution, 
1.50-158, 161-168; Cathoho Church, 
228; fire in, 423. 
Boston instructions, 150-151. 
Boston "massacre," 154. 
Boston News Letter, 127. 
Boston Port Bill, 157-158. 
Boston Tea Party, 156-157. 
Bouquet, Colonel, 149. 
Braddock, Gen. Edward, 144. 
Bradford, William, 67. 
Bragg, General, 370, 371, 374. 
Brandywine, battle, 184. 
BrazU explored, 25. 
Br6beuf, Father, 130. 
Breckinridg?, John C, 343, 344. 
Brewster, Elder, 67. 
Breymann, Colonel, 182. 
Bright, John, 383. 
Brooklj-n Bridge, 417. 
Brooklyn Heights, battle, 1<7. 
Brown, B. Gratz, 401. 
Brown, Gen. Jacob, 264. 
Brown, John, 342-343. 
Brvan, William J., 433, 444, 448, 459, 4t.l . 
Br-.-ant, William C, poet, 301. 
Buchanan, James, 340, 355. 
Buckner, General, 369. 



Buell, Gen. Don Carlos, 369, 370. 
Buena Vista, battle, 319, 320. 
Bulgaria, in Great War, 468, 474. 
Bulloch, ,lohn C, 380. 
Bull Run, battle, 360; second battle, 363, 

364. 
Bunker Hill, battle, 165. 
Burgoyne, General, 181, 182, 183. 
Burgovne's surrender, 182. 
Burke", Kdmund, 157, 158, 169. 
Burlington, N. J., 117. 
Burnside, General, 365. 
Burr, Aaron, 248-249, 254-255. 
Burr-Hamilton duel, 2.54-255. 
Business panic, of 1837, 292; of 1873, 

423; of 1893, 431. 
Butler, Benjamin F., 368, 378, 387. 404. 
Butler, Col. John, 190. 

Cabeza de Vaca, explorer, 31. 

Cabinet, the President's, 238. 

Cable, Atlantic, 349-350. 

Cabot, John, explorer, 24. 7. 

Cabral, explorer, 24-25. 

Cabrillo, explorer, 34. 

Calhoun, John C, 2.59, 283, 289; death, 

333 
California, conquered, 321-322; missions, 
324-327; gold discovered. 327; ad- 
mitted to the Union, 328-.331, 345; 
"pious fund," 442; grants equal suf- 
frage, 455. 
Cahfornia, lower, .324, 443. 
Calvert, Cecilius, 102-103, 106-109. 
Calvert, George, 101. 
Calvert, Leonard, 103, 105-110. 
Cambridge, Mass., named, 72; m Revo- 
lution, 106. 
Camden, battle, 207. 
Cameron, Simon, 404. 
Canada, French in, 38, 135; conquered 
by England, 148; in Revolutionary 
War 167; " Patriot War" in, 293. 
Canals, early, 296-297; Panama, 446. 
Canbv, General, 41.5-416. 
Cancer, Father Luis, 34. 
Canoes, 51. 
Cantigny, battle, 470. 
Capital, of the Umted States, 239. 
Carolina, colony, 113-115. 
Carpetbaggers, 401. 
Carranza, Mexican leader, 459. 
Carroll, Charles, 189, 298. 
Carroll, John, Archbishop, 226-229, 231; 

in mission to Canada. 189. 
Carteret, Sir George, 95. 
Carteret, Philip, 96. 
Cartier, Jacques, explorer, 35. 
Carver, Governor, 67. 
Cass, Lewis, candidate, 323. 
Cathay, 5-6. . „,. mo 

Catholic Church m America, 220-266. 

421-422. 
Catholics, in Maryland, 103-111, 225; 
persecutions, 300-307, 315-316: Know- 
Nothing movement against, 339. 
Cattle raising in the West, 413. 



INDEX 



xlix 



Caucus, Congressional, 282. 

Cedar Creek, battle, 388. 

Census, United States, 23.5, 253, 345, 421. 

Centennial Exposition, 423. 

Central Pacitic Railroad, 411. 

Central Powers, 4(38. 

Cerro Gordo, battle, 320. 

Cervera, Admiral, 437, 438. 

Chad's Ford, battle, 184. 

Chambersburg, burned, 388. 

Champion IliUs, battle, 372. 

Champlain, explorer, 38, 40, 41. 

Champlain, Lake, 40, 205-200. 

Chancellorsville, battle, 300. 

Chandler, Zanliary, 404. 

Chantilly, battle, 364. 

Chapultepee, battle, 321. 

Charles I, King, 02, 69, 102. 

CharlesII, King, 62,63,79,83,92,98,111. 

Charleston, beginnings, 114; attacked by 

Spanish, 140; captured by British, 200; 

and Nullification, 288-289; Southern 

Rights Association, 332. 
Charter Oak, 84. 

Charter of Liberties, Dongan's, 92. 
Charters: Connecticut, 74; Elaine, 81; 

Marsdand, 102; Massachusetts, 70, 83, 

158; Rhode Island, 78. 
Chase, Salmon P., 336, 400. 
Chateau-Thierry, battle, 471. 
Chattanooga campaign, 373-374. 
Cherokees, 45, 291. 
Cherry Valley massacre, 190. 
Chesapeake, the, 257-258, 259, 208. 
Cheverus, tjoctor, 231. 
Chicago, fire in, 423. 
Chickamauga, battle, 373, 374. 
Chile, trouble with, 430-431. 
China, merchants and missionaries in, 

5-6. 
Chinese Empire, treaty with, 350. 
Chinese Exclusion Act, 445. 
Chinese immigration restricted, 425. 
Chippewa, battle, 264. 
Churubusco, battle, 320. 
Cibola, Seven Cities of, 33-31. 
Circumnavigation of the globe, 30. 
Cities, life in early times, 230; growth, 

302-303; government, 452-451. 
Civil Service, 251, 2S7„ 426. 
Civil Service Commission, 420. 
Civil War, 353-397; enlistments in, 393. 
Claiborne, William, 104-105. 
Clark; Champ, 451. 
Clark, George Rogers, 189. 
Clark, William, 252. 
Clay, Henry, Representative and Senator, 

259, 275, 281, 289, 329; presidential 

candidate, 283, 284, 312; death, 333. 
Clermont, the, 255-256. 
Cleveland, Grovcr, 427-428, 431. 
CUnton, General, 169, 177, 181, 183, 185, 

205, 206, 212. 
Clinton, Governor De Witt, 296. 
Clothing, colonial, 122. 
Coal miners' strike, 44.5^46. 
Cold Harbor, battle, 387. 



Colombia, 446-447. 

Colonial laws, 120-121. 

Colonies, English, .54-117; government, 

118-121; life in, 121-127. 
Colorado, admitted to Union, 409; grants 

equal suffrage, 455. 
Columbia, S. C, burned, 391. 
Columbia River, named, 252. 
Columbus, Bartholomew, 12. 
Columbus, Christopher, 10-23, 6. 
Conuuission government, 453. 
Committees of Correspondence, 159. 
Compromise, Missouri, 279-281; of 1833, 

289; of 1850, 329-332. 
Concord, battle, 161-164. 
Confederate States of America, 355; 

armies of, 393. 
Confederation, Articles of, 217-219. 
Congress, First Continential, 159, 161, 

163; Second Continental, 164-105; 

under the Articles, 217; under the Con- 
stitution, 222. 
Congressional reconstruction, 398, 399- 

400. 
Conkling, Roscoe, 400. 
Connecticut, founded, 73-80; charter, 74; 

disputes with N. Y. and Pa., 215; 

western claims, 219. 
Conservation policy, 448. 
Constantinople, trade center, 5, 6. 
Constitution, adopted, 221-223; see 

Amendments. 
Constitution, the, 207, 268. 
Constitutional convention, 1787, 220-221, 

223. 
Constitutional Union party, 343. 
Continental Congress, First, 159, 101, 163; 

Second, 104-105. 
Continental currency, 209. 
Contract Labor law, 42S. 
Conventions, party, 283. 
Cook, Captain, 313. 
Cooper, James Fenimore, author, 301. 
Cooper, Peter, 298. 
Cordova, explorer, 27. 
Corinth, battle, 371. 

Cornwallis, Lord, 179, 209-212; sur- 
render, 212. 
Coronado, Vasquez de, explorer, 33-34. 
Cortes, Hernando, in Mexico, 30. 
Cosa, Juan de la, explorer, 25. 
Cotton, 278, 351, 379, 417. 
Cotton gin, 253-254, 278. 
Council, colonial, 120. 
Council for New England, 61, 69, 80. 
County government, 120. 
Coureurs de bois, 130. 
Cowpens, battle, 210. 
Crater, battle, 388. 

Crawford, William H., candidate, 283. 
Credit Mobilier, 405. 
Crevecoeur. Fort, 133. 
Cromwell, Oliver, 110. 
Crook, General, 415. 
Crown Point, attempts to capture, 145, 

147; captured, 164. 
Crusades, 2. 



INDEX 



(Juba, explored, 21; desired by South, 
335; cause of war with Spain, 435-440. 
Cumberland Gap, 272. 
Curtis, General, 360. 
Curtis, George William, 404. 
Cashing, Caleb, 350. 
Cushing, Lieutenant, 382. 
Custer massacre, 416. 

Da Gama, Vasco, explorer, 7. 

Dale, Sir Thomas, governor, 58-59. 

Daniel, Father, 130. 

Dare, Virginia, 43-44. 

D.irien, isthmus of, 26. 

Davenport, Rev. John, founder of New 

Haven, 74. 
Davis, .Jefferson, 355, 390, 391, 392. 
Davost, Father, 130. 
Dearborn, General, 261, 262. 
Debs, Eugene V., 448, 451. 
Debt, imprisonment for, 115, 304. 
Debt, national, 238, 291, 393, 476. 
Declaration of Independence, 170-175. 
Declaration of Rights, 152. 
Deerfield massacre, 140. 
De Gourgues, Dominic, 38. 
De Grasse, Count, 211, 212. 
De Kalb, General, 207. 
Delaware, settlement of, 91, 112; de- 
clines compensated emancipation, 375. 
Delaware, Lord, 5S. 
De Leon, Juan Ponce, explorer, 27. 
Demarcation, line of, 19-20. 
Democrats, 285, 290; split on the slavery 

question, etc., 343, 390; on the silver 

question, 433. 
De Monta, colonizer, 38-40. 
Denver, founded, 409. 
Denys, John, explorer, 35. 
Deseret, settlement of Mormons, 300. 
De Smet, Father, 415. 
De Soto, Hernando, explorer, 31-33. 
D'Estaing, Admiral, ISO, 206. 
Detroit, attacked by Pontiac, 149; slave 

riots, 232. 
Dswey, George, 436, 437, 438. 
Diaz, Bartholomeu, explorer, 7. 
Diaz, president of Mexico, 459. 
Dictionary, of Noah Webster, 301. 
Oingley tariff, 433. 
Dinwiddie, Governor, 142, 143. 
District of Columbia (D. C), created, 

239; slave trade abolished, 329. 
Donelson, Fort, 309. 
Dongan, Tho-Tias, governor, 92-94. 
Dorchester Heights, 108. 
Dorr's rebellion, 303-304. 
Douglas, Stephen A., 335-336, 340, 343. 
Dover, N. H., 80, 137. 
Draft, in Civil War, 377; in war with 

Germanv, 401-465. 
Drake, Kdwin L., 340. 
Drake, Sir Francis, 42-43. 
Dred Scott decision, 340-341. 
Duke of York, 92, 94, 112. 
Dunmore, Governor, 169. 
DuQuesne, Fort, 143, 144, 146. 



Dutch, explorations, 86-87; colonies, 8. 

92. 
Dutch West India Company, 87. 

Eads, James B., jetties, 417. 

Early, Gen. Jubal A., 388, 389: 

East Florida, 213. 

East Jersey, 96. 

Economic development, 123, 234, 253 

299, 409-119. 
Edison, Thomas A., inventor, 417. 
Education, 126, 300-SOl, 346: Catholic, 

422. 
Egan, Doctor, 231. 
Egan, Patrick, 430. 
Eighteenth Aniendment, 455. 
El Caney, battle, 438. 
Electoral connnission, 406. 
Electric light, 417. 
Electrical development, 417-418. 
Elizabetli, Oueen, 42. 
Elizabethtown, N. J., 96. 
Emancipation, 375-378. 
Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln's, 

377, 378. 
Embargo, the long, 258. 
Emerson, R. W., author, 302. 
Emigrant-Aid Society, 337. 
Emigration, weslward, 272. 
Eiidicott, John, 09, 75. 
England, explorations for, 24, 41-42; 

settlements, 42-45; colonies, S4-127; 

union with Scotland, 117; see Great 

Britain. 
English, William H., 425. 
Era of good feeling, 276. 
Ericsson, John, 300, 382. 
Erie Canal, 290-297. 
Erskine, British minister, 259. 
Ether, anaesthetic, 348. 
Eutaw Springs, battle, 210. 
Executive departm.ent, 237. 
Exploration, Dutch, S6-S7; English, 24, 

41-42; French, 35-40; Noise, l-l; 

Portuguese, 7-8, 24-25; Spanish, 13- 

23, 20-34. 
Ezra Church, battle, 385. 

Factory system, 299, 418. 

Farewell address of Washington, 244. 

Farley, John, Cardinal, 422. 

Farragut, David G., 308, 3S1. 

Federal Reserve Act, 458. 

Federal reserve banks, 458. 

Fcileraltst, The, 221. 

Federalists, party, 223, 235-249, 269, 270. 

Fenwick, Bishop, 307. 

Ferdinand, King, 12, 19, 22. 

Ferguson, Colonel, 209. 

Field, Cyrus W., 350. 

Fifteenth Amendment, 403. 

"Fifty-four forty or fight," 315. 

Filipinos (people of the PhUippinea), 441- 

442. 
Fillmore, Millard, 323, 339. 
Fisher's Hill, battle, 388. 
Fitch's steamboat, 255. 



INDEX 



li 



Five Nations, 40, 45, 93-94; see Iroquois. 

Flag, United States, 241. 

Flag Dav oration, Wilson's, 404. 

Flaget, ilev. Benedict Joseph, 230. 231. 

Flathead Reservation, 415. 

Florence, prison camp, 395. 

Florida, discovered, 27; ceded to Great 
Britain, 148; ceded to Spain, 213; ac- 
ijuired by U. S., 277; admitted to 
Union, 328; secedes from Union, 355. 

Foch, General, 409, 470, 471. 

Foote, Commodore, 369. 

Force Act, of 1809, 258; of 1833, 289. 

Force Bill of 1890, 429. 

Forest, Jssse de, 87. 

Forty-niners, 327-328. 

Fountain of youth, 27. 

Fourteenth Amendment, 399-100, 401. 

France, e.\ploration, 35-40; settlements 
and colonies, 39, 128-130; loses Nortli 
American colonies, 148; aid to United 
States, 187-188, 211; Kovolution, 242; 
naval war with, 240, in Mexico, 383, 
407; presents statue of Liberty, 428. 

Franciscans, in Cathav, 5-0; in California, 
324-320. 

Franklin, Benjamin, founds University 
of Pennsylvania, 120; plan of Union, 
141; Declaration of Independence, 170; 
in Canada, 18J; in France, 187; treaty 
of peace, 213; in Constitutional Conven- 
tion, 221. 

Franklin, General, 365. 

Fredericksburg, battle, 365. 

Free coinage, 433. 

Freedmen's Bureau, 402. 

Freeman's Farm, battle, 182. 

Free-Soilers, 323, 332, 330; in Kansas. 
337, 338. 

Freight transportation, in Far West, 411. 

Fremont, John C explorer, 314-315, 321; 
in California, 322, 329; presidential 
candidate, 339-340. 

French and Indian War, 143-148. 

Frenchtown, battle, 202. 

Frobisher, Martin, explorer, 41-42. 

Frontenac, Governor, 138, 139. 

Fugitive Slave Law, 331-333, 330, 339. 

I'^ulton, Robert, inventor. 255-2.50. 

Fundamental Constitution of Carolina. 
114. 

Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, 74. 

Gadsden Purchase, 323. 

Gage, General. 159, 161, 163, 165. 

Gaines Mill, battle, 362. 

Galveston, commission government in, 

4.53. 
Galvez, General, 188. 
Gama, Vasco da, explorer, 7. 
Garfield, James A.. 425. 427. 
Garrison, Lloyd. 336. 
Gispee, the. 155, 156. 
Gates, Gen. Horatio, 182, 183, 207. 
Gates, Sir Thomas, 58. 
General Court. Massachusetts. 71, 120. 
Gen6t, minister from France, 243. 



Genoa, trade of, 6. 

George II, King, 115. 

George III, King, 158, 213, 259. 

Georgia, founded, 115-110; in the Revo- 
lution, 205; western cHims, 219; 
secedes from Union. 355; Sherman's 
maiob through, 391. 

German immigration, 118, 345. 420. 

Germantown. battle, 184. 

Germany, war with, 400-477. 

Gerry, Elbridge. 245. 

Gettysburg, battle. 307-308. 372. 

Ghent, treaty of, 208, 270. 

Gibault, Pierre, 191-192. 193, 229. 

Gibbons, James, Cardinal, 422. 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 42. 

Gold, discovered in Cahfornia, 327-328; 
discovered in the Rocky Mis., 409. 

Goodyear, Charles, inventor, 348. 

Ciorges, Sir Ferdinando, 80. 81. 

Gosnold. Bartholomew, 54. 

Goupil. Ren6. missionary. 128. 

Gourgues. Dominic de. 38. 

Government, of the color.i,_>s, 118-121; 
local, 120; of the United States, 217, 
221-223; recent reforms, 452-455. 

Governor, the colonial, 119. 

Grand Gulf, taken, 372. 

Grand Model, the, 114. 

Grand Pr6, Acadians of, 146. 

Grant, Gen. Ulysses S., campaigns in the 
West, 368-374; in the East, 383, 384, 
387, 388, 390; President, 403-400. 

Grasse, Count de, 211, 212. 

Gray. Robert, explorer, 252. 313. 

Great Britain, Jay's treaty, 243-244; 
war of 1812 with, 260-270; supports 
Monroe Doctrine, 282; treaties with, 
309. 313-315; relations with during 
Civil War. 370-380. 383; in Great War, 
468. 

Great Meadows, battle. 143. 

Great War. 460-477. 

Greeley, Horace, 336, 346. 404, 405. 

Greene, Gen. Nathanael, 178-179, 210. 

Greene, Thomas, 109. 

Greenland, Northmen in, 2-4. 

Greensboro, Johnston at, 391. 

Griffin, the, La Salle's ship, 132-133. 

Guadalupe-Hidalgo, treaty of, 322. 

Guam, acfiuired, 439. 

Guanahani, discovered, 16. 

Guerriere, the, captured, 268. 

Guilford, battle, 210. 

Hague agreements, 442. 

Hague Tribunal, 443. 

Haiti, explored, 17; settled, 21, 22. 

H'llf Moon, the, 86-87. 

Halleok. General, 360, 363, 371. 

Hamilton, Alexander, work for (constitu- 
tion. 217. 221; Secretarv of the Treas- 
ury, 237-240; killed in a duel, 254. 

Hamilton. General, 192, 195. 

Hampton Roads, in Civil War, 381, 390. 

Hancock, Gen. Winlield Scott, 307, 368, 
425. 



lii 



INDEX 



Harlem Heights, battle. 178. 

Harper's Ferry. John Brown at. 34-, 

taken bv Gen. Jackson, 364. 
Harrisburg, riot over tugitive slaves, 66.. 
Harrison, Benjamin, 429. 

Harrison', Gen. W'^i'^Si "^^^'f i^g'l" 
hattle of Tippecanoe, 201 war ot isi— 
262-264; candidate, 292; President. 
294.309. 

Hartford, settled. 89. 

Hartford Convention, 209. 

Harvard. John, 72. , , ,<, 

Harvard University, founded. 72. 

Havana, taken by British. 148; Maine 

Hawaiiin Islands, independence recog- 
nized. 432; annexed, 439. 
Hawthorne Nathaniel, author 302 

Hayes, Rutherford B., 40b. 407, 4-o. 

Hayne. Senator, 2S!5. 289. 

Henderson. John B., 37o. 

Hendricks. Thomas A., 405. 

Henry. Fort, 309 381 

Henry. Patrick. 151-152, 153, 189, 

Henry Vll. King. 24. 

Henry the Navigator. Prince, 7. 

Herkimer, General, 181. 

Hessians, 179. 

Hispaniola, 17. , „.„ 

Hobkirk's Hill, battle, 210. 

Hobson, Richmond P., 437. 

Holland, friendship.of, 189; sec Dutch. 

Holland, John Patrick, 443-444. 

Holly Springs, battle, 3i2. 

Holmes. Oliver Wendell, author, 302. 

Holy Alhance, 281.. 

Home guards. Civil W ar, 6\i6. 

Homestead Law, 413^ 

Hood, Gen. J. B.. 38o. 

Hooker, Gen. Joseph, 366, Z*j,,6,6. 

Hopkins, Esek, 199. . . 

House of Burgessesf ^'\r^inisx, 59. 

Houston, Gen. Sam, 312. 

Howe, Elias. inventor, 34 <. 

Howe. General, 165, 16<. 169, 1-.. LN 
179. 185. 

Hudson, Henry, explorer. 80. 

Huerta. General, 459. 

Hughes, Bishop, 383. 

Hughes. Charles E.. candidate. 461. 

Huguenot settlements, 35 

Hull. General. 261-262. 

Huron mission, 130. 

Hutchinson, Mrs. Anne, 78. 

idaSmade'-a territory, 409; admitted 
to Union. 421; grants equal suffrage. 

Illinois, admitted to Union, 274; woman 
Im^SaTio^llSi 302, 345 419-421. 
Impeachment of Johnson, 399, 400. 
Impressment of sailors, 260. 
Imprisonment for debt. Ho, 6m. 
Income tax. 432, 457-458. ,_„,-- 

Independence. Declaration of. 170-1 /o. 



India, trade routes to, 5. 
Indiana, admitted as a state, 274 
Indians, 45-53; named, lb, 45 tnbes 
45-46; bfe. 47-53; popiJation, 49, m 
Vi^inia. 57. 60-62, in New England, 
75-76 82-83; in New Netherland 89, 
91; in Pennsylvania, 99; in Maryland 
in^ 107-108; in New France, 130, in 
n?ercoUal Wars, 137-144; Pontiac. 
War. 149; in Revolutionary War, 182, 
190- in Ohio, 242; in the South, 27/ , 
290; n the West, 324-327 406. 414- 
416 See also names of tribes such as 
Abnaki, Huron, Iroquois, Narragansetls, 
Pequois. 
Infciif development. 123. 234, 253. , 

299, 418-419. 
Ingle, Richard, 108. 
Initiative and referendum. 45^. 
Interstate Commerce Act, 412, 4^»- 
Interstate Commerce Commission. 412 

413. _„ 

Intolerable Acts. 157-158 
Inventions, before 1820 25d -oo. -1° 
1840 300; 1840-1860. 347-349. since 
1860.417-418. . 

Iowa., admitted to Umon, 328. 
Irish immigration, 118. 34d,4-u. 
Ironclads, invented. 381-^^^. chum- 

War. 190. 
Irrigation, 445, 450. 
Irving, Washington, author, 301. 
Isabella, Queen, 12, 13, 19. 
Isabella colony, 21. 
Island No. 10, battle, 370. 
Italians in Asia, 5-6. 

Jackson, Andrew, victory at New Orleans 
269; defeats Se.imnoles 2<7 candiaate. 
98-^ 284- President. 285-^y.i:, .ii-. 

Jackson, battle. 375. 

fameTbuke of York, 92; see James II. 

i=li.^i^Ll4.94.137. 

James III, 130. 
Jamestown colony. 55-b^. 
Japan, opened to trade, 351. 
Jay. John. 213. 221. 243. 
Jay's treaty. 243-244^ Declaration of 
•'ISa'iiriV^Secretary of State 
237- Vice President, 24o, l resiatut, 

Jesuit mtsionaries. 107, 128-132, 324, 
326, 415. 

Jewish Welfare Board, 408. 

Joff re, Marshal, 471. 

Jogues, Father, 128-129. 



INDEX 



liii 



John, King of Portugal, 11. 

Johnson, Andrew, in Tcnnossee, ;{76; 

Mco President, 389; President, 392, 

3i)8-401, 407. 
.lohnson, William, 14,5. 
.lohnston. Gen. Albert Sidney, 3()9, 370. 
Johnston, Gen. Joseph K., in the Kjist, 

360, 362; in the West, 374, 384-385; 

in the Carolinas, 390-392. 
Joliet, explorer, 132. 
Jones, John Paul, 199, 201-203. 

Kansas, made a territory, 336; struggle 
for, 337-338; admitted to Union, 345, 
4!)9; grants equal suffrage, 455. 

Kansas-Nebraska act, 335-337. 

Kaskaskia, captured, 191. 

Kearney, Gen. Philip, 320, 364. 

Kearny, Col. Stephen W., 321, 322. 

Kearsarge, the, 380. 

Kenrick. Bishop, 315-316. 

Kent Island, 105. 

Kentucky, settled, 190; Catholics in, 
229; admitted to Union, 241; resolu- 
tions, 248; neutrality, 3.59; compen- 
sated emancipation declined, 375. 
Keokuk dam, 418. 
Key, Francis Scott. 265. 
Kidd, William, 125. 
Kieft, William 89, 129. 
Kilpatrick, Gen. Hugh Judsou, 386. 
Kmg. Rufus, candidate, 270. 
King George's War, 141. 
King Philip s War, 82-83. 
King William's War, 137. 
King's Mountain, battle, 209. 
Knights of Columbus, 466-467. 
Know-Nothings, 339, 345. 
Kosoiuszko, General, 184. 
Ku-Klux Klan, 402, 403. 

Labor, Commissioner of, 428. 

Labor unions begun, 303. 

Lachine, massacre, 137-138. 

Ladrone Islands, discovered, 28; Guam 

ceded to U. S., 439. 
La Fayette, Marquis de, 184, 210, 211, 

212. 
Lake Champlain, battle, 265-207. 
Lake Erie, battle, 263. 
Lake of the Woods, 213. 
Lalemant, Father, 130. 
Land, cessions to U. S., 219; disposition 

of, 271, 413. 
Landais, Capt. Peter, 202, 203. 
Langley, Prof. S. P., 418. 
La Rabida, Columbus at, 12. 
La Salle, Sieur de, 132-130. 
Las Casas, 414. 
LaudonniSre, Ren6 de, 36-37. 
Laurens, Col. John, 201. 
Lawrence, Capt. James, 26t, 268. 
Lawrence, Kansas, 337, 33S. 
Lawrence, the, 263-264. 
Le Boeuf, Fort, 142. 
Lecompton constitution, 338. 
Lee, Gen. Charles, 179, 183, 188. 



Lee, Col. Henry, 205. 
Lee, Richard Henry, 170. 
Lee, Gen. Robert E., captures John Brown 
343; commands Confederate army of 
Northern Virginia, .362-368, 387-391. 
Lee, Fort, 178. 
Ijeif, Norse discoverer, 1-3. 
Leisler, Jacob, 95. 
Le Jeune, Father, 129-130. 
Leon, Juan Ponce de, explorer, 27. 
Leopard, the, 257-258. 
Lewis, Meriwether, 2.52-2.53. 
Lewis and Clark expedition, 2.52-253. 
Lexington, battle, 161. 
Libby prison, 395. 
Liberal Republicans, 404. 
Liberty, statue of, 428. 
Liberty loans, 476. 
Liliuokalani, 432. 

Lincoln, Abraham, debates with Dougla.s, 
341-342; elected President, 343-.344; 
inaugural address, 357; in Civil War, 
357, 3.58, 359, 362, 363; emancipation, 
375-378; blockade, 378; foreign rela- 
tions, 380, 383; reelected, 389; Hamp- 
ton Roads conference, 390; reconstruc- 
tion, 398; death, 392. 
Lincoln, General, 205, 206, 215. 
Literature, beginnings of American, 301- 

302. 
Little Rock, taken, 371. 
Livingston, Robert, 170, 251-252. 
Locke, John, 114. 
Locomotive, first American, 298. 
Log cabin campaign, 294. 
Log house, 121-122. 
London Company, .54, 5.3. 
Longfellow, Henry W., poet, 302. 
Long Island, battle, 177. 
Longstrcet, General, 365. 
Lookout ^Iountain, battle, 373. 
Lords of Trade, 119, 144. 
Louis XIV, King, 133, 135, 137, 139. 
Louis XVI, King, 188. 
Louisburg, captured, 141, 140. 
Louisiana, named and settled, 135-130; 
ceded by France to Spain, 148; pur- 
chased by U. S., 251-252; state ad- 
mitted, 274; secedes from Union, 3.55. 
Louisiana plan of reconstruction, 376- 

377. 
Louisville, founded, 190. 
Lovejoy, Elijah, 293. 
Lowell, James Russell, 302. 
Loyal, Fort, attacked, 139. 
Loyalists, 158. 
Lundy's Lane, battle, 264. 
Lusitanin, the, 460. 
Lyon, General, 359-360. 

McAllister, Fort, 386. 
McCarthy, Capt. Richard, 193. 
McClellan, George B., general, 361-365; 

candidate, 3,89-390. 
McCormick, Cyrus Hall, inventor 300, 

348. 
Macdonough, Thomas, 205-266 



liv 



INDEX 



McDowell, Gen. Irwin, 360, 3f>I, 362. 

Macedonian, the, 26.S. 

McHenry, Fort, 265. 

Machias, Maine, 196. 

McKinlev, William, President, 433, 43.5, 
436, 439; reelected, 444; death, 445. 

McKinley tariff, 429-4.30. 

Madero, Mexican leader, 459. 

Madison, James, in Constitutional Con- 
vention, 221; President, 2.58-260. 

Maffia, the, 4.30. 

Magazines, early, 346. 

Magellan, Ferdinand, explorer, 28-30. 

Magellan, Strait of, 28, 42. 

Maine, first settlements, 81 ; admitted as 
a state, 279; boundary dispute, 309. 

Maine, the, 435, 436. 

Majority rule, 223. 

Malvern Hill, battle, 363. 

Manassas, battle, 360. 

Manhattan Island, 88. 

Manila, 148, 437, 439. 

Mann, Horace, educator, 301. 

Manufactures, 123, 275, 299, 418-419. 

March to the sea, riherman's, 386. 

Marconi, William, inventor, 417. 

Marcos de Niza, explorer, 33. 

Margarelta, the, 196-198. 

Marietta, Ohio, massacre near, 242. 

Marque, letters of, 203. 

Marquette, Rev. .lames, 132. 

Marshall, James Wilson, 327-328. 

Marshall, John, 245, 2.55. 

Marshall, Thomas Riley, 457. 

Marye's Heights, battle, 365. 

Maryland, founded, 101-102; cliarter, 
102; named, 102; assembly, 107; Act 
of Toleration, 109-111; Catholics in, 
10.3-111, 225; declines compensated 
emancipation, 375. 

Mason, James M., 379. 

Mason, John, 75, 80. 

Mason and Dixon's line, 98. 

Massachusetts, founded, 69-73; charter, 
69, 83, 158; education, 72; political 
system, 73-74; western claims, 219. 

Massasoit, 67. 

Maximilian, in Mexico, 407-408. 

Mayflower, the, 65-66. 

Mayflower compact, 66. 

Meade, Gen. George Gordon, 367, 368. 

Meagher, Gen. Thomas Francis, 365., 

Mechanicsville, battle, 362. 

Meigs, Fort, battle, 262. 

Memphis, taken, 371. 

Menendez, Pedro, 37. 

Merrimac, the, 381, 382. 

Merritt, General, 437, 439. 

Meuse-Argonne region, battle, 473-474. 

Mexican War, 316-323. 

Mexico, conquered by Spain, 30; revolt 
of Texas, 310-312; war with, 316-323; 
interference bv France in, 383; with- 
drawal of French from, 407-408 
anarchy in, 4.59-460. 

.Vlichigan, admitted to Union, 328; grants 
equal suffrage, 455. 



Middle Colonies, 86-100, 117-127. 

Midway Islands, acquired, 439. 

Miles, General, in Porto Rico, 438. 

Military Academy, 253. 

Minnesota, admitted to Union, 345. 

Mint, established, 241. 

Minuit, Peter, 88, 112. 

Minutemen, 161, 162. 

Missionary Ridge, battle, 373, 374. 

Missions and missionaries, 225; in China, 

5-6; in Maryland, 107; in New France, 

128, 130; in New York, 128-129, 131; 

in California, 324-327; in Montana, 

415. 
Mississippi, admitted to Union, 274; 

secedes, 355. 
Mississippi River, discovered, 27, 32, 132, 

133; Eads's jetties, 417. 
Missouri, admitted to Union, 279; di- 
vided in Civil War, 359-360; declines 

compensated emancipation, 375. 
Missouri Compromise, 279-281; repealed, 

336. 
Mobile, founded, 136; in Civil War, 381. 
Modocs, Indians, 415. • 
Molino del Rey, battle, 320. 
Money, Continental, 209; paper, 223, 

274-275, 291-292; Civil War, 394; 

specie payment resumed, 424; gold 

standard maintained, 433. 
Monitor, the, 381, 382. 
Monmouth Court House, battle, 185. 
Monocaoy, battle, 388. 
Monroe, James, 276, 281. 
Monroe, Fort, 382, 391. 
Monroe Doctrine, 281-282, violated by 

France, 383, 407; applied to Hawaiian 

Islands, 432. 
Montana, made a territory, 409; trouble 

with Indians, 416; admitted to Union, 

421; grants equal suffrage, 455. 
Montcalm, Marquis de, 146-148. 
Monterey, Calif., 322, 326. 
Monterey, Me.xico, 319. 
Montgomery, Prof. J. J., 418. 
Montgomery, Gen. Richard, 167. 
Montreal, captured, 166. 
Moore, Colonel, 140. 
Moore's Creek, battle, 169. 
Morgan, Gen. Daniel, 210. 
Mormons, 305-306, 426. 
Morris, Robert, 180, 209. 
Morristown, Washington at, 180. 
Morse, Samuel F. B., inventor, 347. 
Morton, Dr., use of ether, 349. 
Moultrie, Colonel, 170. 
Moultrie, Fort, 170, 289. 
Mound builders, 48. 
Mountain Meadows massacre, 306. 
Mount Desert Island, 39, 81. 
Mount Vernon. 216. 
Muhlenberg, Frederick A. C., 238. 
Municipal government, 452—453. 
Murfreesboro, battle, 371. 

Mapoleon, 251-252, 257, 259, 268. 
Nfapoleon III. :-!83 



INDEX 



Iv 



Narragansetts, Indians, 75, 82. 
Narvaez, explorer, 31. 
Nashville, battle, 385. 
Natchez, taken, 368. 
National banks, 394-395. 
National conventions, 283. 
National debt, 291, 393, 476. 
National Turnpike, 296. 
Naumkeag, settled, 69. 
Navidad colony, 17, 21. 
Navigation acts, 91, 124, 150. . 
Navv, in Revolution, 196-203; in war 
with France, 246-247; in War of 1812, 
263-268; in Civil War, 378-382; in 
war with Spain, 436-438; in war with 
Germany, 469. 
Neale, Rev. Leonard, 228. 
Nebraska, made a territory, 336; ad- 
mitted to Union, 409; woman suffrage, 
455. 
Necessity, Fort, 143. 
Negroes, emancipated, 375-378; soldiers, 

378; misrule by, 401. See Slaiery. 
Nerincks, Rev. Charles, 229. 
Neutrality Proclamation, Washington's, 
242; Jefferson's, 256-257; Wilson's, 
460. 
Nevada, admitted, 409; equal suffrage, 

45.5. 
New Albion, 42. 
New Amsterdam, 88, 90. 
Newburg .\ddresses, 214. 
New England, Council for, 64. 
New England, colonies, 64-85, 123-127, 

155; Revolutionary War in, 161-164. 
New England, United Colonies of, 82-84. 
Newfoundland, 41. 
New France, 128, 135; see Que6ec. 
New Hampshire, founded, 80, 84; dis- 
pute with N. Y. over Vermont, 215. 
New Haven, 74-76. 

New Jersey, founded, 95-96; in the Revo- 
lution, 178-180; dispute with N. Y., 
215; early industries, 235. 
New Mexico, conquered, 321; territory, 
329; admitted as a state, 450; grants 
equal suffrage, 455. 
New Netherland, 86-92; conquered b.v 

England, 91. 
New Orleans, spttled, 136; ceded to 
Spain, 148; purchased by U. S., 251- 
252; battle, 269; captured bv Farra- 
gut, 368, 3S1; occupied by Butler, 368, 
378. 
Newport, Sir Christopher, 55-56. 
Newport, R. I., in Revolution, 186, 211. 
Newspapers, early, 346. 
New Sweden, 91. 

New York, founded, 92-95; city charter, 
94; in the Revolution, 177-178; dis- 
pute with N. H. over Vermont, 215; 
early industries, 235; draft riots, 377; 
Anti-rent War, 304; equal suffrage, 455. 
Niagara River, in War of 1S12, 264. 
Nicholson, Francis, 94. 
NicoUs, Governor, 92. 
Non-Intercourse Act, 258-259. 



Norfolk, in Revolution, 169. 

North, Lord, 157, 188, 213. 

North Carolina, founded, 113-115; col- 
lisions with the British, 155; Whig 
victory at Moore's Creek, 169; western 
claims, 219; early industries, 235' 
adopts Constitution, 241; secedes from 
Union, 358. 

North Castle, in Revolution, 178, 179. 

North Dakota, admitted to Union, 421; 
woman suffrage, 455. 

Northmen, in America, 1-4. 

Northwest, routes to, 271. 

Northwest Territory, 219. 

Nova Scotia, settled, 38; named, 140. 

Nullification, 248, 287-289. 

O'Brien brothers, 196-198. 

O'Connell, William, Cardinal, 422. 

Oglethorpe, James Edward, 115-116. 

Ohio, admitted to Union, 253. 

Ohio Company, 143. 

Oil (petroleum), 346-347. 

Oklahoma, admitted to Union, 447; 

initiative and referendum, 452; equal 

suffrage, 455. 
"Old Hickorv," 28.5. 
Omnibus Bill, 331. 
Orange, Fort, 88. 
Orders in Council, 257. 
Ordinance of Nullification, 289. 
Ordinance of Secession, 353. 
Ordinance of 1787. 219, 220. 
Oregon, country, 312-315; state admitted, 

345; grants equal suffrage, 455. 
Oriskany, battle, 181. 
Ostend Manifesto, 335. 

Pakenham, General, 269-270. 

Palmer, John M., candidate, 433. 

Palo Alto, battle, 319 

Palos, Columbus at, 12, 14. 

Pamlico Sound, in Civil War, 380. 

Panama, republic, 446-447. 

Panama Canal, 446—447. 

Panics, in business, of 1837, 292; of 
1873, 423; of 1893, 431. 

Parcel post, 450. 

Paris, treaty of 1763, 148; treaty of 1782, 
213; treaty of 1898, 438. 

Parker, Alton B., candidate, 447. 

Parliament, English, 119. 

Parties, political, 223, 282-283; see Demo- 
crats, Federalists, Free-Soilers, People's 
Party, Prugressites, Republicans, Whigs. 

Patent Office, .300. 

Patriot War, Canada, 293. 

Patroons, in New Netherland, 89. 

Payne-Aldrich tariff bill. 449. 

Peach Tree Creek, battle, 385. 

Pea Ridge, battle, 371. 

Pemberton, General, 372. 

Pendleton Civil Service Act, 426. 

Peninsular Campaign, 361-363. 

Penn, William, 96, 97-99, 112; treaty 
with Indians, 99. 



Ivi 



INDEX 



Pennaylvania, founded. 07-99; bound- 
aries, 98; government, 99-100; races 
in, 98-99, 118; dispute with Conn., 21.5- 
early industries, 2.35; oil in, 346-347; 
in the Civil War, 367, 388. 

Pennsylvania, University of, 126. 

Pension Bill, Dependent, 431. 

People's Party, 431, 433. 

Pepperell, Sir William, 141. 

Pequots, war with, 7.5. 

Perez, Father .John, 12-13. 

Perry, Matthew C, 351. 

Perry, Commodore O. H., 263-264. 

Perry ville, battle, 371. 

Pershing, Gen. John J., 400 465, 473, 
474. 

Personal liberty bills, 339. 

Peru conquered bv Spain, 31. 

Pet banks, 290, 291. 

Petersburg, siege of, 387. 

Petroleum, 346-347. 

Philadelphia, founded, 98; in 1700, 118; 
in the Revolution. 185, 213; Constitu- 
tional Convention, 220; Centennial 
exposition, 423^24. 

Philip of Pokanoket, 82, 83. 

Philip II, King, 44. 

Philippines, discovery, 28-29; in the 
Spanish War. 436-437, 439; colony of 
U. S., 442-443. 

Phillips, Wendell, 336. 

Phips, William, 139. 

Pickett, General, 367. 

Pierce, Franklin, 333-335. 

Pierpont, Francis Harrison, 376. 

Pigafetti, Antonio, explorer, 30. 

Pilgrims, 64. 

Pinckney, Charles C, 245, 246, 248. 

Pineda, explorer, 27. 

Pinzon brothers, explorers, 14, 17. 

Pious fund of the Californias, 442. 

Piracy, colonial, 125. 

Piscataqua, settled, SO. 

Pitcairn, Major, 161. 

Pittsburg Landing, battle, 370. 

Pittsburgh (Fort Pitt), 146; on routes of 
emigration, 271. 

Pius VII, creates new sees in the United 
States, 230. 

Pizarro, Francisco, 31. 

Piatt Amendment, 441. 

Plattsburg, battle, 266. 

Plymouth colony, 6.5-69, 84. 

Plymouth Company, .54, 64. 

Plymouth Rock, 66. 

Pocahontas, 57. 

Poe, Edgar A., author, 301. 

Political parties, see Parties. 

Polk, James K., 312. 

Polo, Marco, traveler, 5. 

Polygamy, 305-306, 426. 

Pontiac's War, 149. 

Pony Express, 411. 

Pope, acts as umpire between Spain and 
Portugal, 19; organizes Catholic Church 
in the United States, 226. 230. 

Pope, General, 363, 364, 370. 



Population, in 1789, 235; in 1800, 2.53, 
in 1860, 345; in 1910, 421. 

Portages, Indian, 51. 

Porter, Admiral, 384. 

Porter, General, 362. 

Port Hudson, taken, 372. 

Porto Rico, 438, 439, 441. 

Port Royal, Acadia, settled, 38; taken, 
139, 140. 

Port Royal, S. Car., in the Civil War, 380. 

Portugal, explorations, 7-8, 24-25; Col- 
umbus in, 11. 

Postal Savings banks, 449. 

Powhatan, 57, 60, 61. 

Prairie, settling, 413. 

Prescott, Colonel, 165, 166. 

Prescott, William H., author. 302. 

President, office established by Consti- 
tution, 222. 

President, the, 259, 268. 

Presidential reconstruction, 398. 

Presidential Succession Act, 427. 

Prevost, Gen. Augustine, 205. 

Prevost, Sir George, 266, 267. 

Price, General, 360. 

Primaries, direct, 454. 

Princeton, battle, 180. 

Printing, in colonies, 126. 

Prisons, military, in Civil War, 395. 

Privateers, 203. 

Proclamation Line, 148. 

Progressives, 451. 

Prohibition amendment, 455. 

Prohibition party, 427, 432. 

Proprietary colonies, 118-119. 

Providence, settled, 77-78; government, 
78. 

Public schools, 301, 340. 

Pueblo Indians, 47. 

Pulaski, Count Casimir, 206. 

Pure Food Act, 448. 

Puritans, 64, 09, 71. 

Putnam, Gen. Israel, 166, 177. 

Quakers, persecuted, 72-73; settle West 
Jersey, 90; settle Pennsylvania, 97. 

Quebec, founded, 38-39; captured by 
British, 147; boundaries, 148, 158; 
attacked bv Americans, 107. 

Quebec Act, 225. 

Queen Anne's War, 139. 

Queenstown Heights, battle, 261-262. 

Railroads, 297-298, 411, 412; govern- 
ment operation, 475. 

Raisin River, battle, 202. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 42-43. 

Rasle, Father Sebastian, 141. 

Reaper, invented, 300, 348. 

Recall, 454. 

Reconstruction, 398-408. 

Reconstruction Acts, 400-401. 

Referendum, 452. 

Reforms, 1820-1840, 304. 

Religion, in colonies, 120. 

Representatives, under the Constitution, 
222, 



INDEX 



Ivii 



Republicans (Democratic), 245, 282-28:{. 

Republicans (new anti-slavery party), 
336, 339; in control during ('ivil War, 
396; rise of Liberal party, 404. 

Resaca de la Palma, battle, 319. 

Revere, Paul, 161. 

Revolutionary War, 1.50-214; prepara- 
tions, 159; England's foreign soldiers, 
167; attitude of Canada, 189; patriot- 
ism of Catholics, 225-226. 

Revolver, invented, 300. 

Rheims, Americans at, 471. 

Rhode Island, founded, 76-80; charters, 
78; religious toleration, 79; in Revolu- 
tion, 186; critical era, 215; adopts 
Constitution, 241; Dorr's rebellion, 
303-304; woman suffrage, 455. 

Ribaut, Jean, 35, 37. 

Richmond, in Revolution, 210; capital 
of Confederacy, 358-359; attacked, 
362, 363. 387; captured, 390. 

Rio Grande, in Mexican War, 317-320; 
made boundary, 323. 

Roanoke Island, settlements, 43, 44. 

Rochambeau, Count, 211. 

Rolfe, John, 57, 60, 61. 

Roman Catholics, see Catholics. 

Roosevelt, Theodore, in war with Spain, 
438; Vice President, 444; President, 
445-448, 451, 461. 

Rosecrans, General, 371, 373. 

Rough Riders, 438. 

Royal provinces, 119. 

Rubber, vulcanized, 348. 

Ramsey's steamboat, 255. 

Rural life, in early times, 236-237. 

Russia, claims in America, 281, 313; 
attitude in Civil War, 383; sells 
Alaska, 407. 

Ryan, Rev. Father, 230. 

Ryswick, treaty of, 139. 

Sabine Cross Roads, battle, 384. 

Saco, Maine, settled, 81. 

Sagas, 2. 

St. Augustine, founded, 37; attacked by 
English, 140. 

St. Croix Island, settlement, 81. 

St. Croix River, boundary, 213. 

St. Lawrence River explored, 35. 

St. Leger, Col. Barry, 181. 

St. Louis mission to the Hurons, 130. 

St. Mary's, settled, 103. 

St. Mihiel, battle, 472-473. 

St. Peters in New York, 227. 

St. Philip, Fort, 368. 

Saint Simon, Count, 212. 

Salary grab, 406. 

Salem, Mass., named, 69; witchcraft de- 
lusion, 73. 

Salisbury, prison, 395. 

Salmeron, Jerome de Zarate, missionary, 
35. 

Salmon Falls, massacre, 139. 

Salvation Army, 468. 

Samoan Islands, 432, 439. 

Samoset, Indian, 67. 



Sampson, Rear Admiral, 437. 

San Francisco, earthquake and tire, 448. 

San Jacinto, battle, 312. 

San Juan, battle, 438. 

San Salvador, island named by Columbus, 

16. 
Santa Anna, 311, 320. 
Santa 16, settled, 34-35; claimed by 

Texas, 321. 
Santa Hermandad, 13. 
Santiago, Cuba, battle, 437-438. 
Saratoga, battle, 183. 
Sargasso Sea, Columbus in, 15. 
Savage's Station, battle, 363. 
Savannah, settled, 115; in Revolution, 

205-206; occupied by Sherman, 386. 
Savannah, the, 299. 
Saybrook, Connecticut, settled, 74. 
Scalawags, 401. 

Schenectady, mas.sacre, 138-139. 
Schurz, Carl, 404. 
Schley, Commodore, 437. 
Schuyler, General, 181. 
Scott, Dred, case of, 340-341. 
Scott, Gen. Winfield, in War of 1812, 

264; in Mexican War, 319, 320, 321; 

candidate, 333; in Civil War, 360. 
Seals, in Bering Sea, 432. 
"Sea of Darkness," 7-8. 
Secession, Ordinance of, 353. 
Sedan, Americans at, 474. 
Sedition Act, 247. 
Sees, in Catholic Church in America, 230, 

422. 
Seminole Indians, 277. 
Semmes, Capt. Raphael, 380. 
Separatists, 64, 65. 
Senators, election and term, 222. 
Serapis, the, 202-203. 
Serra, Father Junipero, 324, 325. 
Seven Cities of Cibola, 33-34. 
Seven Days' fight, 362, 363. 
Seven Pines, battle, 362. 
Seventeenth Amendment, 455. 
Seven Years' War, 146. 
Seward, William H., 336, 390. 
Sewing machine, 347-348. 
Seymour, Horatio, candidate, 403. 
Shafter, General, 437. 
Shays, Daniel, rebellion of, 215. 
Shenandoah Valley, in Civil War, 362, 

367, 388. 
Sheridan, Gen. Philip H., in the West, 

371, 372, 373, 374; in the East, 383, 

388, 389, 390; on the Rio Grande, 407. 
Sherman, John, 424, 430. 
Sherman, Roger, 170. 
Sherman, Gen. William Tecumseh, 372, 

373, 374, 384, 385, 391, 392. 
Sherman Act of 1890, 424. 
Sherman anti-trust law, 430. 
Shiloh, battle, 370. 
Shipbuilding, 475. 
Shops, colonial, 237. 
Sigel, General, 360. 
Silver, discovered in West, 409; silver 

coinage, 424, 433. 



Iviii 



INDEX 



Sioux Indians, 415, 416. 

Sisters of Charity, 316. 

Sitting Bull, 416. 

Six Nations, 140, 144; see Jroquoix. 

Sixteenth Amendment, 455. 

Slater, Samuel, manufacturer, 253. 

Slavery, introduced, 59: excluded from 
Northwest Territory, 220; in North 
and South, 277; importation of slaves 
forbidden, 277; influence of cotton gin, 
278; Missouri Compromise, 279; Wil- 
mot proviso, 323; Compromise of 1S50, 
329-332; Unrle Toms Cabin, 333; 
Kansas-Nebraska Act, 335-337; Under- 
ground Railroad, 339; John Brown's 
raid, 342; emancipation, 375-378. 

SUdell, John, 379. 

Smith, Capt. John, 56, 57, 66. 

Smith, Joseph, Mormon leader, 305-306. 

Smith, Gen. ICirby, 392. 

Socialist party, 432, 448, 451. 

Soissons, Americans at, 471-472. 

Sons of Liberty, 151, 156. 

South, in Civil War, 353-397; military 
government of, 401; after reconstruc- 
tion, 416-417. 

South Carolina, founded, 113-115; in the 
Revolution, 169, 206-207; western 
claims, 219; early industries, 235; 
secedes, 353. 

South Dakota admitted to Union, 421; 
initiative and referendum 452; equal 
suffrage, 455. 

Southern Rights Association, 332. 

South Pass, on route to Pacific coast, 410. 

South Sea, 26. 

Spain, explorations, 13-23, 26-34; 
colonies, 21, 26, 30-37, 281; friendly to 
U. S., 188; treaty with, 244; luses 
colonies, 281; war with, 435-442. 

Spanish-American republics, 281. 

Specie Circular. 292. 

Specie Payment Act, 424. 

Spice Islands, 5, 28. 

Spiritual unrest, 304-305. 

Spoils system, 287. 

Spottsylvania Court House, battle, 387. 

Squanto, Indian, 67. 

Squatter Sovereignty, 336. 

Stamp Act, 151, 152-153. 

Standish, Miles, 67, 68. 

Stanton, Edwin M., 363, 400. 

Stanwix, Fort, 181. 

Stark, Gen. John, 182. 

Star-spangled Banner, 265. 

States, formed, 169-170. 

State's Rights, 288-289, 3.53, 355. 

Steamboats, 255-256, 298-299. 

Stephens, Alexander H., 355. 

Stephenson, Fort, 262. 

Steuben, Baron, l84. 

Stevenson, Adlai, candidate, 444. 

Stillwater, battle, 182. 

Stone River, battle, 371. 

Stony Point, captured, 205. 

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, author, 333. 

Strasburg, battle, 362. 



Strikes, of 1877, 424; of coal miners, 445. 

Stuart, Gen. J. E. B., 367. 

Stuyvesant, Peter, 89. 

Submarine, 443-444, 462. 

Subtreasury, 292. 

Suffrage, broadened, 303; granted 'o 
negroes, 403; granted to women, 454- 
455. 

Sullivan, General, 186, 190. 

Sullivan's Island, in Revolution, 169. 

»'*ulpicians, in United States, 227-229. 

Sumner, Charles, 336, 338. 

Sumter, Fort, 353, 355, 357, 358. 381. 

Supreme Court, provided by Constitu- 
tion, 222. 

Sutter, Johann August, 327. 

.Sweden, settles Delaware, 112. 

Synod, the first American, 228. 

Syracuse, fugitive slave riot in, 333. 

Taft, William Howard, 442, 448-451. 
Tallmadge, Representative, 279. 
Tanev, Roger B., 341. 
Tariff, first, 238; of 1812. 274; of 1824, 

274-275; of Abominations, 285. 287- 

288; of 1833, 289; McKinley. 429- 

4.30; Wilson, 432; Dingley, 433; 

Payne-Aldrich, 449; Underwood. 457. 
Tarleton, Colonel, 210. 
Taylor, Gen. Richard, 384, 392. 
Taylor, Zacharv, general, 317, 318-320; 

President, 323, 331. 
Tea, duty on, 155. 
Tea Party, Boston, 156-157. 
Tecumseh, Indian leader, 260. 
Telegraph, 347, 411; wireless, 417. 
Telephone, 417. 
Tennessee, admitted to Union, 253; 

secedes, 358; in Civil War, 370-371, 

373, 385-386; reconstruction, 376, 398. 
Ten per cent plan, Lincoln's, 377. 
Tenure of Office Act, 400. 
Terry, Eli, manufacturer, 253. 
Texas, settled, 310; war with Mexico, 

310-312; declared independent, 311; 

admitted to Union, 312, 328; gives up 

claim to New Mexico, 329; secedes, 

355 
Thames River, battle, 264. 
Thanksgiving Day, the first, 67-68. 
Thirteenth Amendment, 399. 
Thomas, Gen. George, 371, 372, 373, 385. 
Ticonderoga, Fort, British repulsed by 

French, 146; taken bv Ethan Allen. 

164; retaken by British, 182. 
Tilden, Samuel J., candidate. 406. 
Tippecanoe, battle, 261. 
Tobacco raising, 123, 235. 
Toleration, in Maryland, 109, 110, 111; 

in Rhode Island, 79-80. 
Tonty, Henri de, explorer, 133. 
Topeka convention, in Kansas, 338. 
Toral, General, 438. 
Tordesillas, treaty of, 19. 
Tories, loyal to George III, 158; in 

Georgia and the Caroliiias, 169, 206; 

property confiscated, 217. 



INDEX 



lix 



Toscanelli, astronomer, 11. 

Totem, Indian, 46. 

Townshend Acts, 153, 154, 156. 

Township government, 120. 

Trade, early routes of, 5; restrictions on 
colonial trade, 125; domestic 299; with 
the Orient, 350-351. 

Trails, Indian, 51. 

Transportation Bill, 158. 

Travel, in the colonies, 124. 

Treatv, of Aix-la-Chapelle, 141; of 
Ghent, 268, 270; of Guadalupe Hi- 
dalgo, 322; Jay's, 243-244; of Paris, 
(1763) 148, (1782) 213, (1898) 438; 
of Ryswick, 139; of Utrecht, 141; of 
Washington, 408; Webster- Ashburton, 
309. 

Trent Affair, 379-380, 383. 

Trenton, battle, 179. 

Tribes, Indian, 46. 

Tripoli, War with, 256-257. 

Trusts, 449. 

Trvon, Governor, 155. 

Turkey, in the Great War, 468, 474. 

Twiller, Walter van, 88. 

Tyler, John, 294, 309. 

Uncle Tom's Cabin, 333. 

Underground Railroad, 339. 

Underwood tariff, 457. 

Union Pacific Railroad, 405, 411. 

United States Bank, 240, 261; second, 
274-275, 290, 292. 

Utah, settled, 306; territory, 329; ad- 
mitted to Union, 421; equal suffrage, 
455. 

Utrecht, treaty of, 141. 

Vaca, Cabeza de, explorer, 31. 

Valley Forge, American army at, 184. 

Van Buren, Martin, 292, 294, 323, 324. 

Vancouver, Captain, 313. 

Van Dorn, General, 371. 

Vasco da Gama, 7. 

Venice, trade of, 6. 

Vera Cruz, in Mexican War, 319-321; 

seized by U. S., 459. 
Vermont, dispute over, 215; admitted to 

Union, 241. 
Verrazano, John of, explorer, 35, 7. 
Versailles Conference, 476-477. 
Vespucius, Americus, explorer, 25. 
Vicksburg, capture of, 371-373. 
Vigo, Francois, aids Clark, 193. 
Villa, Mexican leader, 459. 
Vincennes, in Clark's campaign, 192-195; 

visited by priests, 229. 
Vineland, 3, 4. 
Virginia, named, 42; settled, 54-63; 

Bacon's rebellion, 62-63; western claims, 

219; secedes, 358. 
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, 248. 
Virginia City, 409, 411. 
Virginia companies, 54, 61. 
Virgin Islands, acquired, 441. 
Vnginius, the, 404. 
Vivaldi brothers, explorers, 7. 



Wake Island, 439. 

Waldron, Major, 137. 

Waldseeriiiiller, Martin, geographer, 25. 

Wallace, Gen. Lew, 388. 

Wars, early Indian, 60-62, 75-76, 82-83, 
89, 91; intercolonial, 137-148; Pon- 
tiac's, 149; Revolutionary War, 150- 
214; naval war with France, 246- 
247; war with Tripoli, 256; War ol 
1812, 259-270; Mexican, 316-323; 
Civil War, 345-397; Western Indian 
wars, 415-416; war with Spain, 435- 
442; World War, 460-477. 

Washington, George, in French and In- 
dian War, 143, 144, 146; opposes Town- 
shend Acts, 153; in Revolutionarv 
War, 165-168, 177-180, 183-186, 206- 
208, 211-214; in Constitutional Con- 
vention, 220; President, 223-224, 232- 
244; letter to Catholics, 232; Farewell 
Address, 244; death, 248. 

Washington, Col. William, 210. 

Washington, admitted to Union, 421: 
equal suffrage, 455. 

Washington, D. C, made capital, 239; 
captured, 264. 

Washington, Fort, captured, 178. 

Washington, treaty of, 408. 

Wayne, Gen. Anthony, 205, 242. 

Weaver, James B., candidate, 431. 

Webster, Daniel, Senator, 288, 289; can- 
didate, 292; Secretary of State, 309; 
death, 333. 

Webster, Noah, 301. 

Webster-Ashburton treaty, 309. 

Wells, Dr., discovery of anaesthesia, 349. 

Welsh immigration, 118. 

West Florida, 213. 

West India Company, 89, 91. 

West Jersey, 96. 

West Point, in Revolution, 207; Military 
Academy, 253. 

West Virginia, formed, 376; reconstruc- 
tion, 398. 

Wethersfield, Connecticut, 74. 

Weyler, General, 435. 

Wheeler, Gen. Joseph, 438. 

Whigs, English party, 158. 

Whigs, party in the United States, 285, 
289, 309, 334. 

Whisky Insurrection, 239. 

White, Rev. Andrew, 103, 104, 108. 

White, John, 43, 44. 

White Plains, battle, 178. 

Whitney, Eli, inventor, 253-254. 

Whittier, John Greenleaf, author, 302. 

Wildcat banks, 291. 

Wilderness campaign, 387, 388. 

Wilkes, Captain, 379-380. 

William and Mary College, 126. 

William III, King, 84, 95, 111. 

William Henrv, Fort, 145. 

Williams, Roger, 75, 76-79. 

Williamsburg, battle, 361. 

Wilmot, David, 323. 

Wilmot Proviso, 323. 

Wilson. Woodrow. 451, 457-464. 



Ix 



INDEX 



Wilson's Creek, battle, 36U. 
Wilson tariff bill, 432. 
Winchester, in Civil War, 388, 389. 
Windsor, Conn., 74. 
Wingfield, Edward Maria, 56. 
Winthrop, John, 70. 
Winthrop, John, Jr., 74. 
Wisconsin admitted to Union, 328. 
Witchcraft, Salem, 73. 
Wolfe, General, 147-148. 
Woman suffrace, 454-455. 
World's Fair, first, 349. 
World War, 460-477; cost of, 476. 
Wright brothers, inventors, 418. 



Wyoming, admitted to Union, 421; equal 

suffrage, 454. 
Wyoming Valley, 215. 

X, Y, Z Mission, 245-246. 

Yale, Elihu, 126. 

Yale College, founded, 126. 

Yeardley, George, .59. 

Yellow Tavern, battle, 388. 

Y. M. C. A., 466. 

Yorktown, siege of, 211-213. 

Young, Brigham, 306. 

Young Men's Christian Association, 466. 



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'340^ 



^^'fRARYoTcONGREsT 





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